April 2010:
Using skills passed down through generations, Inuit forecasters living in the Canadian Arctic look to the sky to tell by the way the wind scatters a cloud whether a storm is on the horizon or if it's safe to go on a hunt.
Thousands of miles away in a lab tucked in Colorado's Rocky Mountains, scientists take data measurements and use the latest computer models to predict weather. They are two practices serving the same purpose that come from disparate worlds.
But in the past 20 years, something has run amok with Inuit forecasting. Old weather signals don't seem to mean what they used to. The cloud that scatters could signal a storm that comes in an hour instead of a day.
Now researchers are combining indigenous environmental knowledge with modern science to learn new things about what's happening to the Arctic climate.
"It's interesting how the western approach is often trying to understand things without necessarily experiencing them," said Elizabeth Weatherhead, a research scientist with the University of Colorado at Boulder's Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences. "With the Inuit, it's much more of an experiential issue, and I think that fundamental difference brings a completely different emphasis both in defining what the important scientific questions are, and discerning how to address them."
For years, researchers had heard reports of unpredictable weather coming in from Arctic communities. But the stories didn't seem to match up with the numbers. By scientific measurement, weather around the world appeared to be growing more persistent with less variation. The disparity left scientists scratching their heads, said Weatherhead.
"I had been hearing about this problem from other environmental statisticians for a number of years," said Weatherhead, who also works closely with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Earth System Research Laboratory in Boulder, Colo., and who is chief author on a new study on the subject. "But the Inuit used a different language than what we statisticians used, and none of us could really figure out what matched up with their observations."
That's where Shari Gearheard, a scientist with CU-Boulder's National Snow and Ice Data Center, also part of CIRES, comes in. Gearheard lives in Clyde River, Nunavut, Canada, an Inuit community on eastern Baffin Island, and for the past 10 years has been working with Inuit hunters and elders to document their knowledge of the environment and environmental change.
Weather has a special importance in Arctic environments, where a reliable forecast can mean the difference between life and death. There are members of the Inuit community who possess the skills to predict the weather, but that knowledge is dying off as both the culture and climate change, according to the scientists.
"The impacts of that are a loss of confidence in those forecasters and concerns about incorrect forecasts," said Gearheard. Forecasters don't want to send somebody out to go hunting if they're going to be unsafe and be in poor weather conditions."
Gearheard meticulously collects the stories told to her by the Inuit and makes systematic records of indigenous environmental knowledge. Through this, patterns begin to emerge, she said.
Of special importance were changes experienced by the Inuit during the spring, a time of transition for many environmental processes. During spring, the Inuit would notice that the top layer of the snow melted during the day and then would refreeze at night, forming a crust.
"In fact, in a lot of places, the season is named after a particular process by the Inuit," said Gearheard. "In cases like this where the Inuit are not seeing that process anymore, it is an indicator to them that something had changed."
Gearheard's records created a resolution of detail for Arctic weather observation that, by bringing the two studies together, gave Weatherhead the information she needed to bridge indigenous knowledge with scientific knowledge. "What was incredibly helpful was Shari's detailed description of what they were experiencing on what sort of timescales," said Weatherhead. "That really allowed us to start focusing on our statistical tests and try to find exactly what matched their observations."
Statistical analysis of day-to-day temperatures at Baker Lake, Nunavut, showed that in May and June the persistence of temperature had recently declined, matching Inuit reports of greater unpredictability at that season. "People hadn't previously looked at persistence in this way," said CIRES fellow Roger Barry, also director of the World Data Center for Glaciology at the National Snow and Ice Data Center at CU-Boulder and a study co-author along with Gearheard.
What they found was a scientific story more in line with what people were witnessing on the ground. Weather along the Arctic latitudes was behaving more unpredictably than in other parts of the world.
"That's an incredibly important parameter to care about," said Weatherhead. "The way I try to describe it to some people is if we get an inch of rain out at my house in the month of July, I don't need to turn on the sprinklers. But if we get an inch of rain on July 1, and no rain after that, my lawn is dead.
"Ecosystems have evolved under a certain type of pattern. So if that is changing, that could be just as important as a small increase in temperature or some of the other changes we're talking about," Weatherhead said.
The new study helps scientists refine and test climate models, while also providing such models with a new category of information to consider, said Weatherhead. And Gearheard's work with the Inuit is demonstrating the value of indigenous environmental knowledge to modern climate science.
"When we first started talking about this, indigenous knowledge didn't have the place it does now in research," Gearheard said. "It's growing. People are becoming more familiar with it, more respectful of it."
Weatherhead and Gearheard said they are intrigued by the insights that incorporate indigenous knowledge and climate studies, but they don't want to stop there. The new study has sparked an interest in the type of environmental knowledge other communities could provide to climate scientists, from ranchers and farmers to indigenous groups. "When you treat these perspectives as different forms of evidence or knowledge and see where that takes you, that is when exciting stuff happens," said Gearheard.
The study appears this month in the journal Global Environmental Change. The National Science Foundation and the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada provided funding for the study.
Story Source:
Adapted from materials provided by University of Colorado at Boulder.
Journal Reference:
1. Weatherhead et al. Changes in weather persistence: Insight from Inuit knowledge. Global Environmental Change, 2010; DOI: 10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2010.02.002
Friday, April 30, 2010
Massive Arctic Ice Cap Is Shrinking, Study Shows; Rate Accelerating Since 1985
Close to 50 years of data show the Devon Island ice cap, one of the largest ice masses in the Canadian High Arctic, is thinning and shrinking.
A paper published in the March edition of Arctic, the journal of the University of Calgary's Arctic Institute of North America, reports that between 1961 and 1985, the ice cap grew in some years and shrank in others, resulting in an overall loss of mass. But that changed 1985 when scientists began to see a steady decline in ice volume and area each year.
"We've been seeing more mass loss since 1985," says Sarah Boon, lead author on the paper and a Geography Professor at the University of Lethbridge. The reason for the change? Warmer summers.
The High Arctic is essentially a desert with low rates of annual precipitation. There is little accumulation of snow in the winter and cool summers, with temperatures at or below freezing, serve to maintain levels. Any increase of snow and ice takes years.
This delicate equilibrium is easily upset. One warm summer can wipe out five years of growth. And though the accelerated melting trend began in 1985, the last decade has seen four years with unusually warm summers -- 2001, 2005, 2007 and 2008.
"What we see during these warm summers is the extent of the melt is greater," says Boon about the results of a five-year remote sensing study that ran between 2000 and 2004.
The white surfaces of snow and ice reflect heat -- a process known as the albedo effect. Retreating ice exposes dark soil and gravel, which absorb heat and increase the melt rate of ice along the periphery of the cap. But it's not only the edges of the cap that are losing ice. At lower altitudes the ice is thinning as well.
Changes to the Devon ice cap, which covers approximately 14,400 sq. km, could have multiple impacts on everything from ship traffic to sea level.
There has already been an increase in the number of icebergs calving off from outlet glaciers that flow into the ocean. Boon explains that melt water runs between the bottom of the glacier and the ground, creating a slippery cushion that allows the glacier to slide forward more rapidly than it would in colder conditions.
"There are a lot of things we need to consider. One is the iceberg calving and its implications for shipping. These things don't just go away, they float out into the ocean," says Boon. A second area of concern is the contribution of increased glacier melt to rising sea level.
The work of Boon and her colleagues demonstrates the importance of long-term research. Work on Devon Island began in 1961 with researchers from the Arctic Institute of North America, including long-time Arctic scientist Roy 'Fritz' Koerner, who was part of the current study until his death in 2008. This ongoing research, which is continuing thanks to federal International Polar year funding, has created a comprehensive dataset that contributes to the understanding of the complex play between the ice cap, the atmosphere and the ocean.
"We all know long-term studies are important but they are really hard to pay for."
Story Source:
Adapted from materials provided by Arctic Institute of North America, via EurekAlert!, a service of AAAS.
A paper published in the March edition of Arctic, the journal of the University of Calgary's Arctic Institute of North America, reports that between 1961 and 1985, the ice cap grew in some years and shrank in others, resulting in an overall loss of mass. But that changed 1985 when scientists began to see a steady decline in ice volume and area each year.
"We've been seeing more mass loss since 1985," says Sarah Boon, lead author on the paper and a Geography Professor at the University of Lethbridge. The reason for the change? Warmer summers.
The High Arctic is essentially a desert with low rates of annual precipitation. There is little accumulation of snow in the winter and cool summers, with temperatures at or below freezing, serve to maintain levels. Any increase of snow and ice takes years.
This delicate equilibrium is easily upset. One warm summer can wipe out five years of growth. And though the accelerated melting trend began in 1985, the last decade has seen four years with unusually warm summers -- 2001, 2005, 2007 and 2008.
"What we see during these warm summers is the extent of the melt is greater," says Boon about the results of a five-year remote sensing study that ran between 2000 and 2004.
The white surfaces of snow and ice reflect heat -- a process known as the albedo effect. Retreating ice exposes dark soil and gravel, which absorb heat and increase the melt rate of ice along the periphery of the cap. But it's not only the edges of the cap that are losing ice. At lower altitudes the ice is thinning as well.
Changes to the Devon ice cap, which covers approximately 14,400 sq. km, could have multiple impacts on everything from ship traffic to sea level.
There has already been an increase in the number of icebergs calving off from outlet glaciers that flow into the ocean. Boon explains that melt water runs between the bottom of the glacier and the ground, creating a slippery cushion that allows the glacier to slide forward more rapidly than it would in colder conditions.
"There are a lot of things we need to consider. One is the iceberg calving and its implications for shipping. These things don't just go away, they float out into the ocean," says Boon. A second area of concern is the contribution of increased glacier melt to rising sea level.
The work of Boon and her colleagues demonstrates the importance of long-term research. Work on Devon Island began in 1961 with researchers from the Arctic Institute of North America, including long-time Arctic scientist Roy 'Fritz' Koerner, who was part of the current study until his death in 2008. This ongoing research, which is continuing thanks to federal International Polar year funding, has created a comprehensive dataset that contributes to the understanding of the complex play between the ice cap, the atmosphere and the ocean.
"We all know long-term studies are important but they are really hard to pay for."
Story Source:
Adapted from materials provided by Arctic Institute of North America, via EurekAlert!, a service of AAAS.
Thursday, April 29, 2010
New Material for More Ecological, Efficient and Economic Refrigeration Systems
Two teams based at the Barcelona Knowledge Campus, one from the University of Barcelona (UB) and one from the Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (UPC), have worked with a group from the University of Duisburg-Essen (Germany) to develop a new solid material that produces a caloric effect under hydrostatic pressure (solid-state barocaloric effect). The work was carried out using a high-pressure system developed by the UPC, which is the only one of its type in Spain.
he research is described in an article published in the scientific journal Nature Materials and was inspired by guidelines in the Kyoto protocol on renewing current refrigeration systems based on the compression of harmful gases.
Research into materials showing large caloric effects close to room temperature is one of the areas currently being explored to develop new refrigeration systems. Until recently, the most promising materials for applications in this field were giant magnetocaloric materials, which change temperature under the influence of an external magnetic field. The authors of this new study show that application of a moderate hydrostatic pressure to a nickel-manganese-indium alloy (Ni-Mn-In) produces results comparable to those achieved with the most effective magnetocaloric materials.
According to Lluís Mañosa, a professor with the Department of Structure and Constituents of Matter at the UB and principal investigator of the study, "the aim of this field of research is to identify materials that are efficient, economic and environmentally respectful, and the advantages of the alloy used in this study is that all of the component materials meet these requirements."
In addition, Antoni Planes, a professor with the same UN department, explains that, "this type of material can produce much greater caloric effects with only slight variations in pressure, which makes it ideal for domestic refrigeration systems (refrigerators, air conditioning, etc.)." When these alloys are submitted to an external field, either magnetic or pressure, the material undergoes a solid-state phase transition, and Lluís Mañosa explains that, "this phase change generates a considerable latent heat exchange." The physical principle involved is the same as the effect observed when an ice cube is placed into a glass of water: the ice absorbs heat from the water, lowering its temperature.
The experiments were carried out using a unique high-pressure system developed by the Materials Characterization Group at UPC, directed by Josep Lluís Tamarit, a professor with the Department of Nuclear Physics and Engineering. The system was designed to measure the temperatures during state changes according to the pressure and heat exchanged in the process.
According to the researcher Maria Barrio, who works for the same UPC department and co-authored the study, "studying the behaviour of materials under different pressures has a wide range of uses in many fields," and applications include various types of refrigeration systems, such as domestic refrigerators and air-conditioning systems, food storage facilities, industrial machinery and supercomputers. Scientists have understood the magnetocaloric effect for some time, and it has been used extensively in work requiring extremely low temperature, but it was not until the 1990s that experts discovered materials capable of producing a large magnetocaloric effect close to room temperature, or giant magnetocaloric effect.
In 2005, an article in Nature Materials presented the inverse magnetocaloric effect, under which the temperature of a material submitted to an external magnetic field decreases instead of increasing, which is the standard response of most magnetic materials.
The study, carried out as preparation for the doctoral thesis of Xavier Moya, under the direction of Lluís Mañosa (UB), was awarded the 2009 Ramon Margalef Prize by the UB Board of Trustees.
In addition to the barocaloric effect described above, the Ni-Mn-In alloy also exhibits the inverse magnetocaloric effect. As such, the magnetic field can be combined with exertion of hydrostatic pressure to produce the caloric effect, which can be modulated with a series of parameters to control the temperature. With this new material it is possible to observe the pressure and the magnetic field to control the state change at a desired temperature.
he research is described in an article published in the scientific journal Nature Materials and was inspired by guidelines in the Kyoto protocol on renewing current refrigeration systems based on the compression of harmful gases.
Research into materials showing large caloric effects close to room temperature is one of the areas currently being explored to develop new refrigeration systems. Until recently, the most promising materials for applications in this field were giant magnetocaloric materials, which change temperature under the influence of an external magnetic field. The authors of this new study show that application of a moderate hydrostatic pressure to a nickel-manganese-indium alloy (Ni-Mn-In) produces results comparable to those achieved with the most effective magnetocaloric materials.
According to Lluís Mañosa, a professor with the Department of Structure and Constituents of Matter at the UB and principal investigator of the study, "the aim of this field of research is to identify materials that are efficient, economic and environmentally respectful, and the advantages of the alloy used in this study is that all of the component materials meet these requirements."
In addition, Antoni Planes, a professor with the same UN department, explains that, "this type of material can produce much greater caloric effects with only slight variations in pressure, which makes it ideal for domestic refrigeration systems (refrigerators, air conditioning, etc.)." When these alloys are submitted to an external field, either magnetic or pressure, the material undergoes a solid-state phase transition, and Lluís Mañosa explains that, "this phase change generates a considerable latent heat exchange." The physical principle involved is the same as the effect observed when an ice cube is placed into a glass of water: the ice absorbs heat from the water, lowering its temperature.
The experiments were carried out using a unique high-pressure system developed by the Materials Characterization Group at UPC, directed by Josep Lluís Tamarit, a professor with the Department of Nuclear Physics and Engineering. The system was designed to measure the temperatures during state changes according to the pressure and heat exchanged in the process.
According to the researcher Maria Barrio, who works for the same UPC department and co-authored the study, "studying the behaviour of materials under different pressures has a wide range of uses in many fields," and applications include various types of refrigeration systems, such as domestic refrigerators and air-conditioning systems, food storage facilities, industrial machinery and supercomputers. Scientists have understood the magnetocaloric effect for some time, and it has been used extensively in work requiring extremely low temperature, but it was not until the 1990s that experts discovered materials capable of producing a large magnetocaloric effect close to room temperature, or giant magnetocaloric effect.
In 2005, an article in Nature Materials presented the inverse magnetocaloric effect, under which the temperature of a material submitted to an external magnetic field decreases instead of increasing, which is the standard response of most magnetic materials.
The study, carried out as preparation for the doctoral thesis of Xavier Moya, under the direction of Lluís Mañosa (UB), was awarded the 2009 Ramon Margalef Prize by the UB Board of Trustees.
In addition to the barocaloric effect described above, the Ni-Mn-In alloy also exhibits the inverse magnetocaloric effect. As such, the magnetic field can be combined with exertion of hydrostatic pressure to produce the caloric effect, which can be modulated with a series of parameters to control the temperature. With this new material it is possible to observe the pressure and the magnetic field to control the state change at a desired temperature.
Wednesday, April 28, 2010
'Missing' Heat May Affect Future Climate Change
ScienceDaily (Apr.2010) — Current observational tools cannot account for roughly half of the heat that is believed to have built up on Earth in recent years, according to a "Perspectives" article in this week's issue of Science. Scientists at the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) warn in the new study that satellite sensors, ocean floats, and other instruments are inadequate to track this "missing" heat, which may be building up in the deep oceans or elsewhere in the climate system.
"The heat will come back to haunt us sooner or later," says NCAR scientist Kevin Trenberth, the lead author. "The reprieve we've had from warming temperatures in the last few years will not continue. It is critical to track the build-up of energy in our climate system so we can understand what is happening and predict our future climate."
The authors suggest that last year's rapid onset of El Niño, the periodic event in which upper ocean waters across much of the tropical Pacific Ocean become significantly warmer, may be one way in which the solar energy has reappeared.
The research was funded by the National Science Foundation, NCAR's sponsor, and by NASA. A Science Perspectives piece is not formally peer-reviewed, but it is extensively reviewed by editors of the journal. Science had invited Trenberth to submit the article after an editor heard him discuss the research at a scientific conference.
Trenberth and his co-author, NCAR scientist John Fasullo, focused on a central mystery of climate change. Whereas satellite instruments indicate that greenhouse gases are continuing to trap more solar energy, or heat, scientists since 2003 have been unable to determine where much of that heat is going.
Either the satellite observations are incorrect, says Trenberth, or, more likely, large amounts of heat are penetrating to regions that are not adequately measured, such as the deepest parts of the oceans. Compounding the problem, Earth's surface temperatures have largely leveled off in recent years. Yet melting glaciers and Arctic sea ice, along with rising sea levels, indicate that heat is continuing to have profound effects on the planet.
In their Perspectives article, Trenberth and Fasullo explain that it is imperative to better measure the flow of energy through Earth's climate system. For example, any geoengineering plan to artificially alter the world's climate to counter global warming could have inadvertent consequences, which may be difficult to analyze unless scientists can track heat around the globe. Improved analysis of energy in the atmosphere and oceans can also help researchers better understand and possibly even anticipate unusual weather patterns, such as the cold outbreaks across much of the United States, Europe, and Asia over the past winter.
There's more to climate change than warmer air
As greenhouse gases accumulate in the atmosphere, satellite instruments show a growing imbalance between energy entering the atmosphere from the Sun and energy leaving from Earth's surface. This imbalance is the source of long-term global warming.
But tracking the growing amount of heat on Earth is far more complicated than measuring temperatures at the planet's surface. The oceans absorb about 90 percent of the solar energy that is trapped by greenhouse gases. Additional amounts of heat go toward melting glaciers and sea ice, as well as warming the land and parts of the atmosphere. Only a tiny fraction warms the air at the planet's surface.
Satellite measurements indicate that the amount of greenhouse-trapped solar energy has risen over recent years while the increase in heat measured in the top 3,000 feet of the ocean has stalled. Although it is difficult to quantify the amount of solar energy with precision, Trenberth and Fasullo estimate that, based on satellite data, the amount of energy build-up appears to be about 1.0 watts per square meter or higher, while ocean instruments indicate a build-up of about 0.5 watts per square meter. That means about half the total amount of heat is unaccounted for.
A percentage of the missing heat could be illusory, the result of imprecise measurements by satellites and surface sensors or incorrect processing of data from those sensors, the authors say. Until 2003, the measured heat increase was consistent with computer model expectations. But a new set of ocean monitors since then has shown a steady decrease in the rate of oceanic heating, even as the satellite-measured imbalance between incoming and outgoing energy continues to grow.
Some of the missing heat appears to be going into the observed melting of ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica, as well as Arctic sea ice, the authors say.
Much of the missing heat may be in the ocean. Some heat increase can be detected between depths of 3,000 and 6,500 feet (about 1,000 to 2,000 meters), but more heat may be deeper still beyond the reach of ocean sensors.
Trenberth and Fasullo call for additional ocean sensors, along with more systematic data analysis and new approaches to calibrating satellite instruments, to help resolve the mystery. The Argo profiling floats that researchers began deploying in 2000 to measure ocean temperatures, for example, are separated by about 185 miles (300 kilometers) and take readings only about once every 10 days from a depth of about 6,500 feet (2,000 meters) up to the surface. Plans are underway to have a subset of these floats go to greater depths.
"Global warming at its heart is driven by an imbalance of energy: more solar energy is entering the atmosphere than leaving it," Fasullo says. "Our concern is that we aren't able to entirely monitor or understand the imbalance. This reveals a glaring hole in our ability to observe the build-up of heat in our climate system."
"The heat will come back to haunt us sooner or later," says NCAR scientist Kevin Trenberth, the lead author. "The reprieve we've had from warming temperatures in the last few years will not continue. It is critical to track the build-up of energy in our climate system so we can understand what is happening and predict our future climate."
The authors suggest that last year's rapid onset of El Niño, the periodic event in which upper ocean waters across much of the tropical Pacific Ocean become significantly warmer, may be one way in which the solar energy has reappeared.
The research was funded by the National Science Foundation, NCAR's sponsor, and by NASA. A Science Perspectives piece is not formally peer-reviewed, but it is extensively reviewed by editors of the journal. Science had invited Trenberth to submit the article after an editor heard him discuss the research at a scientific conference.
Trenberth and his co-author, NCAR scientist John Fasullo, focused on a central mystery of climate change. Whereas satellite instruments indicate that greenhouse gases are continuing to trap more solar energy, or heat, scientists since 2003 have been unable to determine where much of that heat is going.
Either the satellite observations are incorrect, says Trenberth, or, more likely, large amounts of heat are penetrating to regions that are not adequately measured, such as the deepest parts of the oceans. Compounding the problem, Earth's surface temperatures have largely leveled off in recent years. Yet melting glaciers and Arctic sea ice, along with rising sea levels, indicate that heat is continuing to have profound effects on the planet.
In their Perspectives article, Trenberth and Fasullo explain that it is imperative to better measure the flow of energy through Earth's climate system. For example, any geoengineering plan to artificially alter the world's climate to counter global warming could have inadvertent consequences, which may be difficult to analyze unless scientists can track heat around the globe. Improved analysis of energy in the atmosphere and oceans can also help researchers better understand and possibly even anticipate unusual weather patterns, such as the cold outbreaks across much of the United States, Europe, and Asia over the past winter.
There's more to climate change than warmer air
As greenhouse gases accumulate in the atmosphere, satellite instruments show a growing imbalance between energy entering the atmosphere from the Sun and energy leaving from Earth's surface. This imbalance is the source of long-term global warming.
But tracking the growing amount of heat on Earth is far more complicated than measuring temperatures at the planet's surface. The oceans absorb about 90 percent of the solar energy that is trapped by greenhouse gases. Additional amounts of heat go toward melting glaciers and sea ice, as well as warming the land and parts of the atmosphere. Only a tiny fraction warms the air at the planet's surface.
Satellite measurements indicate that the amount of greenhouse-trapped solar energy has risen over recent years while the increase in heat measured in the top 3,000 feet of the ocean has stalled. Although it is difficult to quantify the amount of solar energy with precision, Trenberth and Fasullo estimate that, based on satellite data, the amount of energy build-up appears to be about 1.0 watts per square meter or higher, while ocean instruments indicate a build-up of about 0.5 watts per square meter. That means about half the total amount of heat is unaccounted for.
A percentage of the missing heat could be illusory, the result of imprecise measurements by satellites and surface sensors or incorrect processing of data from those sensors, the authors say. Until 2003, the measured heat increase was consistent with computer model expectations. But a new set of ocean monitors since then has shown a steady decrease in the rate of oceanic heating, even as the satellite-measured imbalance between incoming and outgoing energy continues to grow.
Some of the missing heat appears to be going into the observed melting of ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica, as well as Arctic sea ice, the authors say.
Much of the missing heat may be in the ocean. Some heat increase can be detected between depths of 3,000 and 6,500 feet (about 1,000 to 2,000 meters), but more heat may be deeper still beyond the reach of ocean sensors.
Trenberth and Fasullo call for additional ocean sensors, along with more systematic data analysis and new approaches to calibrating satellite instruments, to help resolve the mystery. The Argo profiling floats that researchers began deploying in 2000 to measure ocean temperatures, for example, are separated by about 185 miles (300 kilometers) and take readings only about once every 10 days from a depth of about 6,500 feet (2,000 meters) up to the surface. Plans are underway to have a subset of these floats go to greater depths.
"Global warming at its heart is driven by an imbalance of energy: more solar energy is entering the atmosphere than leaving it," Fasullo says. "Our concern is that we aren't able to entirely monitor or understand the imbalance. This reveals a glaring hole in our ability to observe the build-up of heat in our climate system."
Tuesday, April 27, 2010
Milk and Juice Carton Recycling Made Easy
Milk and Juice Carton Recycling Made Easy
Tropicana and Waste Management recently announced they are joining forces to launch a national initiative to increase the rate of juice and milk carton recycling. The initiative kicks off the long-term goal to increase beverage carton recycling nationwide, a program being promoted through the Carton Council.
Milk and juice cartons are made largely from paper sources and fall under the material category of paperboard. Though not accepted by all municipal curbside programs, more than 85 percent of the U.S. population has access to paperboard recycling.
Though 85 percent of the U.S. population has access to paperboard recycling, not all paperboard recyclers will accept milk and juice cartons. Photo: G-can.net
Waste Management will be accepting juice and milk cartons at all its recycling processing facilities across the country in order to increase their recycling rate. Waste Management separates the cartons from the other recyclables and sends them to a secondary mill for recycling.
Recycled through a process called hydropulping, which recovers a material’s paper fibers, the cartons are recycled into paper towels, tissue and other paper products. A typical Tropicana carton is made of 85 percent paper and 15 percent polymer, making the product largely recyclable.
“We are proud to be working with Waste Management to promote the expansion of carton recycling across the country and finding new ways to recycle our products into environmentally beneficial products,” says Andre Hartshorn, senior marketing manager for Tropicana Products, Inc.
This national carton recycling program builds off a successful pilot program in Tampa, Fla., where Tropicana and Waste Management, along with the Carton Council and Dean Foods, successfully expanded carton recycling availability and educated consumers about carton recycling.
Tropicana and Waste Management recently announced they are joining forces to launch a national initiative to increase the rate of juice and milk carton recycling. The initiative kicks off the long-term goal to increase beverage carton recycling nationwide, a program being promoted through the Carton Council.
Milk and juice cartons are made largely from paper sources and fall under the material category of paperboard. Though not accepted by all municipal curbside programs, more than 85 percent of the U.S. population has access to paperboard recycling.
Though 85 percent of the U.S. population has access to paperboard recycling, not all paperboard recyclers will accept milk and juice cartons. Photo: G-can.net
Waste Management will be accepting juice and milk cartons at all its recycling processing facilities across the country in order to increase their recycling rate. Waste Management separates the cartons from the other recyclables and sends them to a secondary mill for recycling.
Recycled through a process called hydropulping, which recovers a material’s paper fibers, the cartons are recycled into paper towels, tissue and other paper products. A typical Tropicana carton is made of 85 percent paper and 15 percent polymer, making the product largely recyclable.
“We are proud to be working with Waste Management to promote the expansion of carton recycling across the country and finding new ways to recycle our products into environmentally beneficial products,” says Andre Hartshorn, senior marketing manager for Tropicana Products, Inc.
This national carton recycling program builds off a successful pilot program in Tampa, Fla., where Tropicana and Waste Management, along with the Carton Council and Dean Foods, successfully expanded carton recycling availability and educated consumers about carton recycling.
Monday, April 26, 2010
Saltwater poisoning threatens Ghana
Saltwater poisoning threatens Ghana
How is sea level rise poisoning Ghana?
Written by Will
Popular images of sea level change are flooded houses, displaced people and eroded landscapes. In Western Ghana, a sinister new picture is emerging: salt water poisoning. Rising sea levels have polluted the water sources of thousands of inhabitants, infecting their drinking water and creating an unprecedented rise in salt-related health problems.
The head of water quality at the Ghana Water Company has admitted providing drinking water with almost twice the recommended salt levels, whilst the medical director of the regional hospital has reported a 70% increase in strokes, hypertension and heart problems.
Largely ignored in the Ghanaian press, this is a candid portrait of environmental abuse and political mismanagement set to mushroom if current climatic trends continue.
A town on the edge
The focus of the problem is Ada, a town of 20 000 people perched on the estuary of the Volta river. Throughout history the river has provided for and protected the people. Its seasonal floods replenished the floodplain and its powerful flow prevented sea water from travelling up the estuary.
However in the 1950s, the Volta underwent a profound change when the Akosombo dam was constructed. Much of the river’s drainage basin was flooded to create Lake Volta and the flow of water became controlled by the corporate priorities of the Ghana Water Company. Suddenly Ada’s umbilical chord to the interior was cut.
Over the last fifty years, mismanagement of this river system has caused a reduction in water reaching Ada, allowing sea water to encroach upstream and pollute the purification plants supplying the town’s fresh water. Writing in 2007, Dr Philip Narh of Dangme East District Hospital warned that if this problem was left unchecked, it could soon affect the whole 130 000 inhabitants of the South Tongu district. The situation has been created by three major environmental changes.
Rampant deforestation
Thick forest once covered northern Ghana, stretching from the Togo border to Tamale. Rampant deforestation by farmers and charcoal burners has left much of the land barren. The impact on the Volta drainage system has been profound. “Deforestation has completely removed the canopy layer. This layer slowed the rate of run off and supplied the spring source” says Evans Balaara, head of water quality at the Ghana Water Company. “Evaporation rates have also increased as there is no vegetation to provide shade. As a result far less water is now reaching the lake in a normal year than when I was young.” Increasingly erratic rainfall patterns (drought 2007-08, severe flooding 2009) have also added to the problem and in 2006 the only dam in the Damongo (northern) region had to be shut down when its lake dried up. With less water reaching the lake, the ball is set rolling for major problems downstream.
Rising urbanisation
Accra is the 32nd fastest growing city in the world, expanding at a rate of 3% per year. Rural-urban migration - particularly from the northern regions - has been a catalyst for this growth. This has put huge pressure on the urban infrastructure. “The infrastructure cannot keep pace with this increase” says Mr Balaara. “At the moment Ghana Water Company cannot meet the demand from the city. We have to do expansion, but the expansion money is not available yet.” The problem does not lie in the amount of water available, but in the piping and purification system. The pipes are too narrow and the treatment plants too small to process the millions of gallons of water used by the city every day.
Looking to the future Mr Balaara says that the government’s priority is to increase extraction from the lake by building new plants and installing wider pipes. The knock on effect of this is a further reduction in the amount of water trickling down to Ada. Combining this with reduced water inputs, the town’s future looks increasingly bleak.
The rising tide
With the supply of fresh water reaching Ada decreasing, salt water has been able to encroach further upstream. This has been magnified by high spring tides, whose waters have reached Ghana Water Company’s purification plant at Ada. “we have results from Ada when there is a spring tide. The salt levels get up to 350mg per litre, 150mg in excess of our limit of 200mg per litre.” The medical consequences of this have been dramatic. Dr Philip Narh confirmed that a higher number of deaths in the area are caused by hypertension and other heart related diseases. “2.7% of Ada residents are suffering from chronic heart related diseases and this will increase dramatically in the future.”
What is the government planning to do about this? Nothing.
Our hands are tied
Ghana Water Company has no solution to this problem. There are no facilities for desalinising contaminated water at Ada. Replacing the current purification plant with a desalinisation plant is “too capital intensive” to merit consideration. “Our only option is to shut the water purification plant down. But we have no back up supply.”
If the purification plant is shut down, then residents will be forced to use hand-dug wells for their water. These are found further downstream from the purification plant and Ghana water “does not monitor the quality of these sources.” Ada it seems is to be sacrificed.
When you frame this within climate scientists predictions of a one metre sea level rise in the next 100 years the future looks grim. Mr Balaara conceded “If sea level change happens, things will become much worse and we are likely to lose Ada. The buildings will go and the whole land will go. At the moment we don’t have the money to do anything about this.”
The circle of life
Whilst it is easy to criticise the government in its handling of the situation, finding a longer-term solution remains a challenge. An obvious stop gap is to relocate the purification plant further upstream. However this only buys time.
As long as the demand for water from Accra keeps growing Ada’s future remains bleak. The challenge is to find a way to increase the flow of water into the lake and reduce the rampant rate of rural-urban migration to Accra. Putting it another way, to manage the remaining forest (and plant new forest) in a sustainable manner and increase rural capacity to prevent people leaving for the cities.
The options here are much wider. Possible REDD funding could provide an incentive for forest conservation (see Tim’s case study here), whilst a number of other West African countries have small scale projects that increase rural capacity without endangering local resources. One of these is run by Environmental Foundation for Africa, focussing on sustainable forest management. Renewable forest products – bamboo, raffia, cane – are harvested to construct furniture and baskets that are be sold at local market, whilst the hardwoods and canopy layer remain untouched. Sustainability is a vital element to prevent the exhaustion of opportunities that often leads to rural-urban migration.
The fate of Lot’s wife
The story of Ada is a depressingly familiar tale of environmental mismanagement, whose innocent victims are found hundreds of miles from the cause of the problem and whose culprits act out of ignorance or greed. If nobody confronts this then Ada will be swallowed by the sea. But when the first buildings tumble into the ocean, they will tumble on a land that has been desertified by the salt. Spring tides and storm surges will have forced salt water further up the Volta estuary. The medical bills at Dangme district hospital will have climbed and life expectancy will have plummeted. Fields will have been sterilised by high salinity irrigation water and livestock killed off by contaminated drinking water. The population will have either perished or migrated to Accra, perpetuating the vicious cycle that underlies this problem. Like the biblical tale of Lot’s wife, if we fail to heed the warnings of mightier forces, all will soon be turned to salt.
In Ada, sea level did not begin with beach erosion or flooding, it began when the first person turned on their tap to taste the salty solution infecting their waterways.
Acidifying Oceans Dramatically Stunt Growth of Already Threatened Shellfish, Research Finds
New research shows that global warming and its effects -- in particular, ocean acidification -- have descended upon shellfish reefs, particularly those formed by the Olympia oyster.
More than one-third of the world's human-caused carbon dioxide emissions have entered the oceans, according to Brian Gaylord, a biological oceanographer at the Bodega Marine Laboratory of the University of California at Davis.
"Similar to what happens in carbonated soda," says Gaylord, "increasing carbon dioxide in seawater makes it more acidic."
Even with small changes in acidity, seawater becomes corrosive to the shells of aquatic organisms.
That's not good news for most marine life, especially for oysters.
Gaylord is investigating the consequences of this increasing ocean acidity on the growth of larval and juvenile Olympia oysters native to the U.S. West Coast.
"Such early life stages can be extremely sensitive to environmental stresses like ocean acidification," says Gaylord.
"These stages operate as bottlenecks that drive overall population numbers. If larval and juvenile Olympia oysters decline as a result of an acidifying ocean, what does that mean for the species as a whole?"
Likely nothing good, he and colleagues say.
"Changes now happening in the ocean's chemistry are expected to continue far into the foreseeable future," says David Garrison, director of the National Science Foundation (NSF)'s biological oceanography program, which funds Gaylord's research. "They may have myriad effects on marine animals."
Gaylord conducted experiments on larvae and juveniles produced by adult oysters in Tomales Bay, California. Adults were collected in the bay, then held at the Bodega Marine Laboratory until they released larvae.
In the lab, the free-swimming larvae were reared into early juvenile life.
Carbon dioxide concentrations in laboratory seawater were controlled to match present-day conditions in the oceans, 380 parts per million (ppm), as well as two carbon dioxide scenarios projected to occur by the year 2100 (540 and 970 ppm).
Mid-way through the larval phase at day nine, oysters in the high carbon dioxide treatment had shells that were 16 percent smaller than those reared in control, or ambient, conditions.
These effects continued through the time the larval oysters settled onto hard substrate at day 12. Shell size was seven percent smaller for oysters in the 970 ppm treatment than in the control group.
By a week later, the effects were dramatically magnified. The bottom-dwelling juveniles in the 970 ppm treatment had grown 41 percent less than juveniles under control conditions.
The consequences persisted, even after the juveniles from all treatments had been returned to present-day conditions.
"One and a half months after being transferred back to normal seawater," says Gaylord, "juveniles that had come from the high carbon dioxide environment were still 28 percent smaller than oysters reared for the entire experiment in control conditions."
The results strongly suggest that the effects of ocean acidification on oyster larvae persist well into the juvenile phase, he says, with potential consequences for oyster populations.
"If similar impacts happen to species beyond the Olympia oyster, there could be repercussions for oysters around the world."
Globally, 85 percent of shellfish reefs have been lost, making oyster reefs one of the most severely threatened marine habitats on the planet.
"Shellfish reefs in some places are at less than 10 percent of their former abundance," says Garrison. "Oysters have gone extinct in many areas, especially in North America, Australia and Europe."
Just as coral reefs are critical to tropical marine habitats, shellfish like oysters are the ecosystem engineers of bays and estuaries, creating dwelling places for countless plants and animals that find refuge in their three-dimensional structure.
The surface area of an oyster bed across its dips and folds and crevices may be 50 times greater than that of an equally extensive flat mud bottom.
Shellfish reefs also provide important services to people by filtering water, and serving as natural coastal buffers from boat wakes, sea-level rise and storms.
Oysters have supported civilization for millennia, from the ancient Romans to railroad workers in California in the 1880s. In the 1870s, eastern oyster reefs extended for miles along the James River in Chesapeake Bay. By the 1940s, they had largely disappeared.
"It's unclear whether we will ever be able to return to that by-gone era," says Gaylord. "The constellation of environmental and other pressures on oysters--including the consequences of ocean acidification--places them at grave risk."
Gaylord and colleagues presented early results of their research at the Ocean Sciences Meeting in Portland, Oregon, in February. They plan to publish a paper with updated findings later this year.
Story Source:
Adapted from materials provided by National Science Foundation.
More than one-third of the world's human-caused carbon dioxide emissions have entered the oceans, according to Brian Gaylord, a biological oceanographer at the Bodega Marine Laboratory of the University of California at Davis.
"Similar to what happens in carbonated soda," says Gaylord, "increasing carbon dioxide in seawater makes it more acidic."
Even with small changes in acidity, seawater becomes corrosive to the shells of aquatic organisms.
That's not good news for most marine life, especially for oysters.
Gaylord is investigating the consequences of this increasing ocean acidity on the growth of larval and juvenile Olympia oysters native to the U.S. West Coast.
"Such early life stages can be extremely sensitive to environmental stresses like ocean acidification," says Gaylord.
"These stages operate as bottlenecks that drive overall population numbers. If larval and juvenile Olympia oysters decline as a result of an acidifying ocean, what does that mean for the species as a whole?"
Likely nothing good, he and colleagues say.
"Changes now happening in the ocean's chemistry are expected to continue far into the foreseeable future," says David Garrison, director of the National Science Foundation (NSF)'s biological oceanography program, which funds Gaylord's research. "They may have myriad effects on marine animals."
Gaylord conducted experiments on larvae and juveniles produced by adult oysters in Tomales Bay, California. Adults were collected in the bay, then held at the Bodega Marine Laboratory until they released larvae.
In the lab, the free-swimming larvae were reared into early juvenile life.
Carbon dioxide concentrations in laboratory seawater were controlled to match present-day conditions in the oceans, 380 parts per million (ppm), as well as two carbon dioxide scenarios projected to occur by the year 2100 (540 and 970 ppm).
Mid-way through the larval phase at day nine, oysters in the high carbon dioxide treatment had shells that were 16 percent smaller than those reared in control, or ambient, conditions.
These effects continued through the time the larval oysters settled onto hard substrate at day 12. Shell size was seven percent smaller for oysters in the 970 ppm treatment than in the control group.
By a week later, the effects were dramatically magnified. The bottom-dwelling juveniles in the 970 ppm treatment had grown 41 percent less than juveniles under control conditions.
The consequences persisted, even after the juveniles from all treatments had been returned to present-day conditions.
"One and a half months after being transferred back to normal seawater," says Gaylord, "juveniles that had come from the high carbon dioxide environment were still 28 percent smaller than oysters reared for the entire experiment in control conditions."
The results strongly suggest that the effects of ocean acidification on oyster larvae persist well into the juvenile phase, he says, with potential consequences for oyster populations.
"If similar impacts happen to species beyond the Olympia oyster, there could be repercussions for oysters around the world."
Globally, 85 percent of shellfish reefs have been lost, making oyster reefs one of the most severely threatened marine habitats on the planet.
"Shellfish reefs in some places are at less than 10 percent of their former abundance," says Garrison. "Oysters have gone extinct in many areas, especially in North America, Australia and Europe."
Just as coral reefs are critical to tropical marine habitats, shellfish like oysters are the ecosystem engineers of bays and estuaries, creating dwelling places for countless plants and animals that find refuge in their three-dimensional structure.
The surface area of an oyster bed across its dips and folds and crevices may be 50 times greater than that of an equally extensive flat mud bottom.
Shellfish reefs also provide important services to people by filtering water, and serving as natural coastal buffers from boat wakes, sea-level rise and storms.
Oysters have supported civilization for millennia, from the ancient Romans to railroad workers in California in the 1880s. In the 1870s, eastern oyster reefs extended for miles along the James River in Chesapeake Bay. By the 1940s, they had largely disappeared.
"It's unclear whether we will ever be able to return to that by-gone era," says Gaylord. "The constellation of environmental and other pressures on oysters--including the consequences of ocean acidification--places them at grave risk."
Gaylord and colleagues presented early results of their research at the Ocean Sciences Meeting in Portland, Oregon, in February. They plan to publish a paper with updated findings later this year.
Story Source:
Adapted from materials provided by National Science Foundation.
Sunday, April 25, 2010
Calculating Agriculture's Phosphorus Footprint
Balancing phosphorus levels in crop lands is a key factor that is often overlooked in discussions of global food security, according to a paper published in the International Journal of Agricultural Resources, Governance and Ecology.
Current global issues include carbon footprints, water resources and climate change. However, the non-renewable element phosphorus for plant growth is often overlooked in the global context.
Biologist John Lott of McMaster University, in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada, and colleagues there and at the University of Sydney, Australia, point out that when food scarcity increases, instability in society increases. Given that the majority of the food we eat is from cereals and legumes, the phosphorus cycle is a critical element of food security. Phosphorus is essential for crop plant growth, but soils become depleted as it is removed from the land when the grain and seeds are harvested.
The researchers have analysed nine years of data on total dry cereal grain and total dry legume seed production, production of barley, maize, rice, soybean and wheat grains/seeds, yields, area farmed, the tonnage of phosphorus and phytic acid removed in these crops and the elemental phosphorus applied as mineral fertilizers to all plant crops.
The world estimate of the elemental P removed with the dry seed/grain and fleshy fruit crops that contain seeds is in the range of 56-71% of the elemental phosphorus applied as mineral fertilizer for all purposes worldwide. Depending on the soil type, considerable amounts of phosphorus may become unusable by plants, the team explains.
An analysis of the phosphorus data by the team reveals several significant imbalances in the agricultural cycling of phosphorus that could seriously affect global food security. For instance, Asia consumes significantly more mineral phosphorus fertilizer in proportion to crop production than any other region, which could represent a potential environmental, economic and social problem for that part of the world.
"This is a particularly relevant and important topic in the light of the increasing global population since high quality P reserves are diminishing and the cost of fertilizers are escalating rapidly with few options available to increase fertilizer phosphorus use efficiency," the team says.
There are various approaches to improving the position of phosphorus in food production and security, Lott and colleagues suggest. More effort must be made to combine all possible factors to increase the supply of our most important cereal and legume grain/seed crops in an efficient and environmentally sustainable way, they explain. That means optimising the use of phosphorus fertilizers, using selective breeding and genetic modification to produce crops that require less phosphorus depending on whether they are destined for animal feed or human consumption. Most of all, improving agricultural and governance practices can all play important roles in improving food security, in general.
Story Source:
Adapted from materials provided by Inderscience Publishers, via EurekAlert!, a service of AAAS.
Journal Reference:
1. John Lott et al. A review of the phosphorus content of dry cereal and legume crops of the world. Int. J. Ag
Current global issues include carbon footprints, water resources and climate change. However, the non-renewable element phosphorus for plant growth is often overlooked in the global context.
Biologist John Lott of McMaster University, in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada, and colleagues there and at the University of Sydney, Australia, point out that when food scarcity increases, instability in society increases. Given that the majority of the food we eat is from cereals and legumes, the phosphorus cycle is a critical element of food security. Phosphorus is essential for crop plant growth, but soils become depleted as it is removed from the land when the grain and seeds are harvested.
The researchers have analysed nine years of data on total dry cereal grain and total dry legume seed production, production of barley, maize, rice, soybean and wheat grains/seeds, yields, area farmed, the tonnage of phosphorus and phytic acid removed in these crops and the elemental phosphorus applied as mineral fertilizers to all plant crops.
The world estimate of the elemental P removed with the dry seed/grain and fleshy fruit crops that contain seeds is in the range of 56-71% of the elemental phosphorus applied as mineral fertilizer for all purposes worldwide. Depending on the soil type, considerable amounts of phosphorus may become unusable by plants, the team explains.
An analysis of the phosphorus data by the team reveals several significant imbalances in the agricultural cycling of phosphorus that could seriously affect global food security. For instance, Asia consumes significantly more mineral phosphorus fertilizer in proportion to crop production than any other region, which could represent a potential environmental, economic and social problem for that part of the world.
"This is a particularly relevant and important topic in the light of the increasing global population since high quality P reserves are diminishing and the cost of fertilizers are escalating rapidly with few options available to increase fertilizer phosphorus use efficiency," the team says.
There are various approaches to improving the position of phosphorus in food production and security, Lott and colleagues suggest. More effort must be made to combine all possible factors to increase the supply of our most important cereal and legume grain/seed crops in an efficient and environmentally sustainable way, they explain. That means optimising the use of phosphorus fertilizers, using selective breeding and genetic modification to produce crops that require less phosphorus depending on whether they are destined for animal feed or human consumption. Most of all, improving agricultural and governance practices can all play important roles in improving food security, in general.
Story Source:
Adapted from materials provided by Inderscience Publishers, via EurekAlert!, a service of AAAS.
Journal Reference:
1. John Lott et al. A review of the phosphorus content of dry cereal and legume crops of the world. Int. J. Ag
Saturday, April 24, 2010
Dry Regions Becoming Drier: Ocean Salinities Show an Intensified Water Cycle
ScienceDaily (Apr. 18, 2010) — The stronger water cycle means arid regions have become drier and high rainfall regions wetter as atmospheric temperature increases.
The study, co-authored by CSIRO scientists Paul Durack and Dr Susan Wijffels, shows the surface ocean beneath rainfall-dominated regions has freshened, whereas ocean regions dominated by evaporation are saltier. The paper also confirms that surface warming of the world's oceans over the past 50 years has penetrated into the oceans' interior changing deep-ocean salinity patterns.
"This is further confirmation from the global ocean that the Earth's water cycle has accelerated," says Mr Durack -- a PhD student at the joint CSIRO/University of Tasmania, Quantitative Marine Science program.
"These broad-scale patterns of change are qualitatively consistent with simulations reported by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).
"While such changes in salinity would be expected at the ocean surface (where about 80 per cent of surface water exchange occurs), sub-surface measurements indicate much broader, warming-driven changes are extending into the deep ocean," Mr Durack said.
The study finds a clear link between salinity changes at the surface driven by ocean warming and changes in the ocean subsurface which follow the trajectories along which surface water travels into the ocean interior.
The ocean's average surface temperature has risen around 0.4ºC since 1950. As the near surface atmosphere warms it can evaporate more water from the surface ocean and move it to new regions to release it as rain and snow. Salinity patterns reflect the contrasts between ocean regions where the oceans lose water to the atmosphere and the others where it is re-deposited on the surface as salt-free rainwater.
"Observations of rainfall and evaporation over the oceans in the 20th century are very scarce. These new estimates of ocean salinity changes provide a rigorous benchmark to better validate global climate models and start to narrow the wide uncertainties associated with water cycle changes and oceanic processes both in the past and the future -- we can use ocean salinity changes as a rain-gauge," Mr Durack said.
Based on historical records and data provided by the Argo Program's world-wide network of ocean profilers -- robotic submersible buoys which record and report ocean salinity levels and temperatures to depths of two kilometres -- the research was conducted by CSIRO's Wealth from Oceans Flagship and partially funded by the Australian Climate Change Science Program. Australia's Integrated Marine Observing System is a significant contributor to the global Argo Program.
The study, co-authored by CSIRO scientists Paul Durack and Dr Susan Wijffels, shows the surface ocean beneath rainfall-dominated regions has freshened, whereas ocean regions dominated by evaporation are saltier. The paper also confirms that surface warming of the world's oceans over the past 50 years has penetrated into the oceans' interior changing deep-ocean salinity patterns.
"This is further confirmation from the global ocean that the Earth's water cycle has accelerated," says Mr Durack -- a PhD student at the joint CSIRO/University of Tasmania, Quantitative Marine Science program.
"These broad-scale patterns of change are qualitatively consistent with simulations reported by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).
"While such changes in salinity would be expected at the ocean surface (where about 80 per cent of surface water exchange occurs), sub-surface measurements indicate much broader, warming-driven changes are extending into the deep ocean," Mr Durack said.
The study finds a clear link between salinity changes at the surface driven by ocean warming and changes in the ocean subsurface which follow the trajectories along which surface water travels into the ocean interior.
The ocean's average surface temperature has risen around 0.4ºC since 1950. As the near surface atmosphere warms it can evaporate more water from the surface ocean and move it to new regions to release it as rain and snow. Salinity patterns reflect the contrasts between ocean regions where the oceans lose water to the atmosphere and the others where it is re-deposited on the surface as salt-free rainwater.
"Observations of rainfall and evaporation over the oceans in the 20th century are very scarce. These new estimates of ocean salinity changes provide a rigorous benchmark to better validate global climate models and start to narrow the wide uncertainties associated with water cycle changes and oceanic processes both in the past and the future -- we can use ocean salinity changes as a rain-gauge," Mr Durack said.
Based on historical records and data provided by the Argo Program's world-wide network of ocean profilers -- robotic submersible buoys which record and report ocean salinity levels and temperatures to depths of two kilometres -- the research was conducted by CSIRO's Wealth from Oceans Flagship and partially funded by the Australian Climate Change Science Program. Australia's Integrated Marine Observing System is a significant contributor to the global Argo Program.
Friday, April 23, 2010
South-Facing is Best—But What If My Home Is Already Built?
Maximizing energy efficiency starts with large south-facing windows, which help to naturally heat your home in the winter and keep it cool in the summer. Also known as passive solar design, this is a key element in new homes that are working towards zero carbon emissions. Natural sunlight controls temperatures and also reduces your building’s lighting requirements and can therefore cut back on your electricity bill.
But what if you have an existing non-south-facing home and you want similar effects?
While retrofitting existing buildings to utilize passive solar design tends to be difficult, there are some easy ways to capitalize on small changes.
* When possible, retrofit your home with skylights to allow natural light to penetrate.
* Replace your existing windows with double-paned glass. This prevents heat loss during the winter and keeps out the heat during the summer.
* To keep your home cool during summer months, install awnings or low-emissivity blinds over windows.
* Plant deciduous trees on the southern and western sides of your home. They’ll shield the sun in the summer, and with the loss of leaves in the fall and winter will still allow light to access your windows.
* Really take advantage of the sun: install a solar hot water system to heat your hydraulic radiant floor!
But what if you have an existing non-south-facing home and you want similar effects?
While retrofitting existing buildings to utilize passive solar design tends to be difficult, there are some easy ways to capitalize on small changes.
* When possible, retrofit your home with skylights to allow natural light to penetrate.
* Replace your existing windows with double-paned glass. This prevents heat loss during the winter and keeps out the heat during the summer.
* To keep your home cool during summer months, install awnings or low-emissivity blinds over windows.
* Plant deciduous trees on the southern and western sides of your home. They’ll shield the sun in the summer, and with the loss of leaves in the fall and winter will still allow light to access your windows.
* Really take advantage of the sun: install a solar hot water system to heat your hydraulic radiant floor!
Super stars of Urban Areas - The Trees
Shade trees are the superstars of congested urban landscapes. In addition to their intrinsic aesthetic qualities, these low-tech workhorses reduce air and noise pollution, provide habitat for wildlife, increase property values, and offer cool respite for harried urbanites. Strategically planted shade trees decrease energy usage in urban buildings, absorb carbon dioxide, and supply fresh oxygen. It's no coincidence that researchers around the world are working to find the best shade trees for all types of urban environments.
Studies have proven on the "cooling effect" of shade trees in temperate urban areas, similar studies for sub/tropical areas are limited. Climate conditions & popular tree species in the tropics or subtropics are quite different from those in more temperate regions. Now, a research team from the Department of Horticulture at National Taiwan University has published a comprehensive study in HortScience that offers recommendations for landscape designers and urban planners in subtropical regions. Bau-Show Lin and Yann-Jou Lin evaluated the differences in cooling effect of trees and bamboo grown in Taipei, Taiwan.
The effect of shade trees on the air and surface-soil temperature reduction under the canopy was studied in a park in Taipei City, Taiwan. Ten species of trees and two species of bamboo, which had tightly clustered tall stems and spreading branches resembling trees, were chosen for the study. Microclimate conditions under the tree canopies and an unshaded open space were measured repeatedly at midday without precipitation. The researchers analyzed four characteristics of each plant related to cooling effect, determining that foliage density had the greatest contribution to cooling, followed by leaf thickness, leaf texture, and leaf color lightness. Regression analysis also revealed that solar radiation, wind velocity, and vapor pressure at the site had significant effects on temperature reduction attributable to shade trees or bamboo.
Twelve species in the study provided 0.64 to 2.52ºC lower air temperature and 3.28 to 8.07ºC lower surface-soil temperature under the canopies compared with the unshaded open site. When analyzed for "cooling effect," Chinese elm (Ulmus parvifolia) and Rose wood (Pterocarpus indicus) were the determined to be the most effective, while Golden shower tree (Cassia fitula), Autumn maple (Bischofia javanica), and Swollen bamboo (Bambusa ventricosa) were the least effective. "The shading of U. parvifolia reduced air temperature by 2.52ºC but that of C. fitula only by 0.64ºC; the difference was almost fourfold," noted the authors.
"This research could help maximize the cooling effect of shade trees by careful selection of species based on their canopy and leaf characteristics," the authors said. They added that although the field studies were carried out in a park, the results can be applied to shade trees in other subtropical urban environments.
So people plant trees for our betterment.....
Each one plant one every year !!!! We cannot expect the Government to do all the works for us... lets take the initiatives
Studies have proven on the "cooling effect" of shade trees in temperate urban areas, similar studies for sub/tropical areas are limited. Climate conditions & popular tree species in the tropics or subtropics are quite different from those in more temperate regions. Now, a research team from the Department of Horticulture at National Taiwan University has published a comprehensive study in HortScience that offers recommendations for landscape designers and urban planners in subtropical regions. Bau-Show Lin and Yann-Jou Lin evaluated the differences in cooling effect of trees and bamboo grown in Taipei, Taiwan.
The effect of shade trees on the air and surface-soil temperature reduction under the canopy was studied in a park in Taipei City, Taiwan. Ten species of trees and two species of bamboo, which had tightly clustered tall stems and spreading branches resembling trees, were chosen for the study. Microclimate conditions under the tree canopies and an unshaded open space were measured repeatedly at midday without precipitation. The researchers analyzed four characteristics of each plant related to cooling effect, determining that foliage density had the greatest contribution to cooling, followed by leaf thickness, leaf texture, and leaf color lightness. Regression analysis also revealed that solar radiation, wind velocity, and vapor pressure at the site had significant effects on temperature reduction attributable to shade trees or bamboo.
Twelve species in the study provided 0.64 to 2.52ºC lower air temperature and 3.28 to 8.07ºC lower surface-soil temperature under the canopies compared with the unshaded open site. When analyzed for "cooling effect," Chinese elm (Ulmus parvifolia) and Rose wood (Pterocarpus indicus) were the determined to be the most effective, while Golden shower tree (Cassia fitula), Autumn maple (Bischofia javanica), and Swollen bamboo (Bambusa ventricosa) were the least effective. "The shading of U. parvifolia reduced air temperature by 2.52ºC but that of C. fitula only by 0.64ºC; the difference was almost fourfold," noted the authors.
"This research could help maximize the cooling effect of shade trees by careful selection of species based on their canopy and leaf characteristics," the authors said. They added that although the field studies were carried out in a park, the results can be applied to shade trees in other subtropical urban environments.
So people plant trees for our betterment.....
Each one plant one every year !!!! We cannot expect the Government to do all the works for us... lets take the initiatives
Newest Material for More Ecological, Efficient and Economic Refrigeration Systems
An Extract from ScienceDaily dated Apr. 21, 2010 — Two teams based at the Barcelona Knowledge Campus, one from the University of Barcelona and one from the Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, have worked with a group from the University of Duisburg-Essen to develop a new solid material that produces a caloric effect under hydrostatic pressure (solid-state barocaloric effect). The work was carried out using a high-pressure system developed by the UPC, which is the only one of its type in Spain.
This research was described in an article published in the scientific journal Nature Materials and was inspired by guidelines in the Kyoto protocol on renewing current refrigeration systems based on the compression of harmful gases.
Research into materials showing large caloric effects close to room temperature is 1 of the areas currently being explored to develop new refrigeration systems. Until recently, the most promising materials for applications in this field were giant magnetocaloric materials, which change temperature under the influence of an external magnetic field. The authors of this new study show that application of a moderate hydrostatic pressure to a nickel-manganese-indium alloy (Ni-Mn-In) produces results comparable to those achieved with the most effective magnetocaloric materials.
According to Mañosa, a professor with the Department of Structure and Constituents of Matter at the UB and principal investigator of the study, "the aim of this field of research is to identify materials that are efficient, economic and environmentally respectful, and the advantages of the alloy used in this study is that all of the component materials meet these requirements."
In addition, Antoni Planes, a professor with the same UN department, explains that, "this type of material can produce much greater caloric effects with only slight variations in pressure, which makes it ideal for domestic refrigeration systems (refrigerators, air conditioning and other cooling systems)." When these alloys are submitted to an external field, either magnetic or pressure, the material undergoes a solid-state phase transition, and Mañosa explains that, "this phase change generates a considerable latent heat exchange." The physical principle involved is the same as the effect observed when an ice cube is placed into a glass of water: the ice absorbs heat from the water, lowering its temperature.
The experiments were carried out using a unique high-pressure system developed by the Materials Characterization Group at UPC, directed by Josep Lluís Tamarit, a professor with the Department of Nuclear Physics and Engineering. The system was designed to measure the temperatures during state changes according to the pressure and heat exchanged in the process.
According to the researcher Maria Barrio, who works for the same UPC department and co-authored the study, "studying the behaviour of materials under different pressures has a wide range of uses in many fields," and applications include various types of refrigeration systems, such as domestic refrigerators and air-conditioning systems, food storage facilities, industrial machinery and supercomputers. Scientists have understood the magnetocaloric effect for some time, and it has been used extensively in work requiring extremely low temperature, but it was not until the 1990s that experts discovered materials capable of producing a large magnetocaloric effect close to room temperature, or giant magnetocaloric effect.
In 2005, an article in Nature Materials presented the inverse magnetocaloric effect, under which the temperature of a material submitted to an external magnetic field decreases instead of increasing, which is the standard response of most magnetic materials.
The study, carried out as preparation for the doctoral thesis of Xavier Moya, under the direction of Lluís Mañosa (UB), was awarded the 2009 Ramon Margalef Prize by the UB Board of Trustees.
In addition to the barocaloric effect described above, the Ni-Mn-In alloy also exhibits the inverse magnetocaloric effect. As such, the magnetic field can be combined with exertion of hydrostatic pressure to produce the caloric effect, which can be modulated with a series of parameters to control the temperature. With this new material it is possible to observe the pressure and the magnetic field to control the state change at a desired temperature.
Story Source:
Adapted from materials provided by Universidad de Barcelona, via AlphaGalileo.
Journal Reference:
1.Lluís Mañosa, David González-Alonso, Antoni Planes, Erell Bonnot, Maria Barrio, Josep-Lluís Tamarit, Seda Aksoy, Mehmet Acet. Giant solid-state barocaloric effect in the Ni-Mn-In magnetic shape-memory alloy. Nature Materials, 2010; DOI: 10.1038/nmat2731
This research was described in an article published in the scientific journal Nature Materials and was inspired by guidelines in the Kyoto protocol on renewing current refrigeration systems based on the compression of harmful gases.
Research into materials showing large caloric effects close to room temperature is 1 of the areas currently being explored to develop new refrigeration systems. Until recently, the most promising materials for applications in this field were giant magnetocaloric materials, which change temperature under the influence of an external magnetic field. The authors of this new study show that application of a moderate hydrostatic pressure to a nickel-manganese-indium alloy (Ni-Mn-In) produces results comparable to those achieved with the most effective magnetocaloric materials.
According to Mañosa, a professor with the Department of Structure and Constituents of Matter at the UB and principal investigator of the study, "the aim of this field of research is to identify materials that are efficient, economic and environmentally respectful, and the advantages of the alloy used in this study is that all of the component materials meet these requirements."
In addition, Antoni Planes, a professor with the same UN department, explains that, "this type of material can produce much greater caloric effects with only slight variations in pressure, which makes it ideal for domestic refrigeration systems (refrigerators, air conditioning and other cooling systems)." When these alloys are submitted to an external field, either magnetic or pressure, the material undergoes a solid-state phase transition, and Mañosa explains that, "this phase change generates a considerable latent heat exchange." The physical principle involved is the same as the effect observed when an ice cube is placed into a glass of water: the ice absorbs heat from the water, lowering its temperature.
The experiments were carried out using a unique high-pressure system developed by the Materials Characterization Group at UPC, directed by Josep Lluís Tamarit, a professor with the Department of Nuclear Physics and Engineering. The system was designed to measure the temperatures during state changes according to the pressure and heat exchanged in the process.
According to the researcher Maria Barrio, who works for the same UPC department and co-authored the study, "studying the behaviour of materials under different pressures has a wide range of uses in many fields," and applications include various types of refrigeration systems, such as domestic refrigerators and air-conditioning systems, food storage facilities, industrial machinery and supercomputers. Scientists have understood the magnetocaloric effect for some time, and it has been used extensively in work requiring extremely low temperature, but it was not until the 1990s that experts discovered materials capable of producing a large magnetocaloric effect close to room temperature, or giant magnetocaloric effect.
In 2005, an article in Nature Materials presented the inverse magnetocaloric effect, under which the temperature of a material submitted to an external magnetic field decreases instead of increasing, which is the standard response of most magnetic materials.
The study, carried out as preparation for the doctoral thesis of Xavier Moya, under the direction of Lluís Mañosa (UB), was awarded the 2009 Ramon Margalef Prize by the UB Board of Trustees.
In addition to the barocaloric effect described above, the Ni-Mn-In alloy also exhibits the inverse magnetocaloric effect. As such, the magnetic field can be combined with exertion of hydrostatic pressure to produce the caloric effect, which can be modulated with a series of parameters to control the temperature. With this new material it is possible to observe the pressure and the magnetic field to control the state change at a desired temperature.
Story Source:
Adapted from materials provided by Universidad de Barcelona, via AlphaGalileo.
Journal Reference:
1.Lluís Mañosa, David González-Alonso, Antoni Planes, Erell Bonnot, Maria Barrio, Josep-Lluís Tamarit, Seda Aksoy, Mehmet Acet. Giant solid-state barocaloric effect in the Ni-Mn-In magnetic shape-memory alloy. Nature Materials, 2010; DOI: 10.1038/nmat2731
Thursday, April 22, 2010
Earth Care Awards 2010!
The Times of India in association with JSW organises the "Earth Care Awards 2010"
The Earth Care Awards is unique and is aimed at highlighting action of direct relevance to India to tackle challenges posed by climate change.
The award is for excellence in climate change mitigation and adaptation. This is in response to the recently growing consciousness about issues associated with climate change and that it is important to identify and foster locally evolved options to reduce missions, approaches to protect land and water resources and other innovations for reducing impacts, emphasizing appropriate environmental action. The present second edition of the award will focus on three important areas, signifying action by industries, collaborative action by industry and community and by individuals covering a wide range of stakeholders.
Award Categories:
* Community based Mitigation and Adaptation to Climate change with respect to Water resources, Land use, Land use-Change and Forestry
* Innovation for Climate protection
* GHG mitigation in Small & Medium and Large Enterprises.
As far as I am concern the award might go to ITC. ITC has been ‘Carbon Positive’ four years in a row (sequestering/ storing twice the amount of CO2 that the Company emits.
To apply visit
http://gogreen.timesofindia.com or you can write to gaurav.bansal@timesgroup.com
Application deadline is 30 May 2010
Finally I am happy that India is thnking about going Green and sustainability.
Jai ho! India!!!
The Earth Care Awards is unique and is aimed at highlighting action of direct relevance to India to tackle challenges posed by climate change.
The award is for excellence in climate change mitigation and adaptation. This is in response to the recently growing consciousness about issues associated with climate change and that it is important to identify and foster locally evolved options to reduce missions, approaches to protect land and water resources and other innovations for reducing impacts, emphasizing appropriate environmental action. The present second edition of the award will focus on three important areas, signifying action by industries, collaborative action by industry and community and by individuals covering a wide range of stakeholders.
Award Categories:
* Community based Mitigation and Adaptation to Climate change with respect to Water resources, Land use, Land use-Change and Forestry
* Innovation for Climate protection
* GHG mitigation in Small & Medium and Large Enterprises.
As far as I am concern the award might go to ITC. ITC has been ‘Carbon Positive’ four years in a row (sequestering/ storing twice the amount of CO2 that the Company emits.
To apply visit
http://gogreen.timesofindia.com or you can write to gaurav.bansal@timesgroup.com
Application deadline is 30 May 2010
Finally I am happy that India is thnking about going Green and sustainability.
Jai ho! India!!!
Choosing an efficient air conditioner
Choosing an efficient air conditioner
As the summer is starting to grill us, many people have already started installing Air conditioners in their homes.
The most important thing to look for with an air conditioner is the star rating. You need to work out what size you require for the task and then choose the most efficient model that will perform the task.
The two main types of air conditioners for household use are window-wall systems and split systems. While both can be equally efficient, split systems tend to be more efficient for a particular size range as their components are generally less constrained by size (although this is not always true). Split systems have the advantage of being quieter indoors during operation but they are also more expensive. Some larger houses may choose ducted or packaged units. Be sure to check the stars before you buy.
A new innovation in air conditioner technology is the use of an inverter or variable speed drive in the motor system that drives the compressor (comes with Voltas, Hitachi and Onida now). While these systems tend to look less efficient at full load (ie their star rating at rated capacity is not always as high as conventional air conditioners), they tend to be very efficient at part load operation, which is a more common mode in a typical household. So if you are likely to use an air conditioner for long periods because you live in a hot climate, it may be worth considering an inverter system. They are, however, more expensive to buy, as a rule.
Sizing an air conditioner
The output capacity is a measure of the amount of heat that will be removed (cooling) or added (heating) to the room/s in your house by the air conditioner. The output range you need will depend upon your particular requirements. Air conditioner outputs are measured in kilowatts (kW). As an approximate guide for sizing a room unit allow:
125watts (0.125kW) per square metre of floor area to be cooled in living areas;
80 watts (0.080kW) per square metre of floor area in bedrooms.
These estimates depend on the climate and the efficiency of your house design (orientation, glazing and insulation levels).
It is advisable to get a full heating or cooling load calculation from an authorised air conditioning installer or manufacturer before you buy.
Simple thumb rule is that 1.5 tonne will do good for a 200 to 250 sq.ft area. And 1.0 or .8 tonne for areas lesser than 200 sq.ft.
Best suggestions as a user of AC: Go for brands like Hitachi and O General.
As the summer is starting to grill us, many people have already started installing Air conditioners in their homes.
The most important thing to look for with an air conditioner is the star rating. You need to work out what size you require for the task and then choose the most efficient model that will perform the task.
The two main types of air conditioners for household use are window-wall systems and split systems. While both can be equally efficient, split systems tend to be more efficient for a particular size range as their components are generally less constrained by size (although this is not always true). Split systems have the advantage of being quieter indoors during operation but they are also more expensive. Some larger houses may choose ducted or packaged units. Be sure to check the stars before you buy.
A new innovation in air conditioner technology is the use of an inverter or variable speed drive in the motor system that drives the compressor (comes with Voltas, Hitachi and Onida now). While these systems tend to look less efficient at full load (ie their star rating at rated capacity is not always as high as conventional air conditioners), they tend to be very efficient at part load operation, which is a more common mode in a typical household. So if you are likely to use an air conditioner for long periods because you live in a hot climate, it may be worth considering an inverter system. They are, however, more expensive to buy, as a rule.
Sizing an air conditioner
The output capacity is a measure of the amount of heat that will be removed (cooling) or added (heating) to the room/s in your house by the air conditioner. The output range you need will depend upon your particular requirements. Air conditioner outputs are measured in kilowatts (kW). As an approximate guide for sizing a room unit allow:
125watts (0.125kW) per square metre of floor area to be cooled in living areas;
80 watts (0.080kW) per square metre of floor area in bedrooms.
These estimates depend on the climate and the efficiency of your house design (orientation, glazing and insulation levels).
It is advisable to get a full heating or cooling load calculation from an authorised air conditioning installer or manufacturer before you buy.
Simple thumb rule is that 1.5 tonne will do good for a 200 to 250 sq.ft area. And 1.0 or .8 tonne for areas lesser than 200 sq.ft.
Best suggestions as a user of AC: Go for brands like Hitachi and O General.
2 great Simple ways to save energy
Do not use Air conditioners during winter
Do not use Geysers or water Heaters during summer
People just think !!!! you could save thousands by following the simple rule
Other ideas for saving energy and water: http://www.green-energy-efficient-homes.com/energy-saving-tips-invitation.html
Do not use Geysers or water Heaters during summer
People just think !!!! you could save thousands by following the simple rule
Other ideas for saving energy and water: http://www.green-energy-efficient-homes.com/energy-saving-tips-invitation.html
Calculate your Energy saving by Using Star rated Air conditioners
This simple and user friendly Energy Calculator, allows you to choose different capacity of AC, quantity, efficiency level and operating time. Follow the steps shown below and click at appropriate places of your choice. You can estimate savings in Electricity charges by use of Star-5 AC over Star-0 AC.
This is from Bureau of Energy Efficiency site.....
http://www.saveenergy.co.in/20-module-positions-mainmenu-44.php
This is from Bureau of Energy Efficiency site.....
http://www.saveenergy.co.in/20-module-positions-mainmenu-44.php
Why should people use CFL? Compact Flouride Lamps
Why should people use CFLs?
Switching from traditional light bulbs (called incandescent) to CFLs is an effective. Making this change will help to use less electricity at home and prevent greenhouse gas emissions that lead to global climate change. Lighting accounts for close to 20 percent of the average home’s electric bill. Bulbs, last up to 10 times longer, cost little up front, and provide a quick return on investment.
Do CFLs contain mercury?
CFLs contain a very small amount of mercury sealed within the glass tubing – an average of 4 milligrams – about the amount that would cover the tip of a ballpoint pen. By comparison, older thermometers contain about 500 milligrams of mercury – an amount equal to the mercury in 125 CFLs. Mercury is an essential part of CFLs; it allows the bulb to be an efficient light source. No mercury is released when the bulbs are intact (not broken) or in use. Most makers of light bulbs have reduced mercury in their fluorescent lighting products. Thanks to technology advances the average mercury content in CFLs has dropped at least 20 percent in the past year. Some manufacturers have even made further reductions, dropping mercury content to 1.4 – 2.5 milligrams per light bulb.
What are mercury emissions caused by humans?
Mercury released into the air from the coal-fired electrical power is the main way that mercury gets into water and bio-accumulates in fish. (Eating fish contaminated with mercury is the main way for humans tube exposed.)
Most mercury vapor inside fluorescent light bulbs becomes bound to the inside of the light bulb as it is used. It is estimated that the rest of the mercury within a CFL – about 11 percent – is released into air or water when it is sent to a landfill, assuming the light bulb is broken.
How do CFLs result in less mercury in the environment compared to traditional light bulbs?
CFLs use less electricity than incandescent lights, meaning CFLs reduce the amount of mercury into the environment .Because CFLs also help to reduce greenhouse gasses, other pollutants associated with electricity production, and landfill waste (because the bulbs last longer), they are clearly the environmental winner when compared to traditional incandescent light bulbs.
Switching from traditional light bulbs (called incandescent) to CFLs is an effective. Making this change will help to use less electricity at home and prevent greenhouse gas emissions that lead to global climate change. Lighting accounts for close to 20 percent of the average home’s electric bill. Bulbs, last up to 10 times longer, cost little up front, and provide a quick return on investment.
Do CFLs contain mercury?
CFLs contain a very small amount of mercury sealed within the glass tubing – an average of 4 milligrams – about the amount that would cover the tip of a ballpoint pen. By comparison, older thermometers contain about 500 milligrams of mercury – an amount equal to the mercury in 125 CFLs. Mercury is an essential part of CFLs; it allows the bulb to be an efficient light source. No mercury is released when the bulbs are intact (not broken) or in use. Most makers of light bulbs have reduced mercury in their fluorescent lighting products. Thanks to technology advances the average mercury content in CFLs has dropped at least 20 percent in the past year. Some manufacturers have even made further reductions, dropping mercury content to 1.4 – 2.5 milligrams per light bulb.
What are mercury emissions caused by humans?
Mercury released into the air from the coal-fired electrical power is the main way that mercury gets into water and bio-accumulates in fish. (Eating fish contaminated with mercury is the main way for humans tube exposed.)
Most mercury vapor inside fluorescent light bulbs becomes bound to the inside of the light bulb as it is used. It is estimated that the rest of the mercury within a CFL – about 11 percent – is released into air or water when it is sent to a landfill, assuming the light bulb is broken.
How do CFLs result in less mercury in the environment compared to traditional light bulbs?
CFLs use less electricity than incandescent lights, meaning CFLs reduce the amount of mercury into the environment .Because CFLs also help to reduce greenhouse gasses, other pollutants associated with electricity production, and landfill waste (because the bulbs last longer), they are clearly the environmental winner when compared to traditional incandescent light bulbs.
CDM Terminologies and Acronyms
CDM Terminologies and Acronyms
Adaptation Fund
Two percent of the CERs from every CDM project are deposited in a special registry run by the Executive Board. Revenues from their sale will be used to fund climate change adaptation projects in developing countries. Projects in Least Developed Countries are exempt.
Additionality
Additionality asks whether the CDM project would have happened anyway or whether it needed the CDM to go ahead. “It is generally recognised that credits for GHG emissions reduction should only be granted for projects that are additional; that is, for projects which would not have taken place in the absence of the crediting procedure or trading scheme”.
Additionality is a critical issue. Registering a non-additional CDM project will result in no additional benefit to the climate and thus represents wasted investment. Furthermore, a non-additional project will generate fake carbon credits that an Annex I country can use to avoid making real emission reductions domestically, and ultimately leads to an increase in global emissions above what was expected due to the Kyoto Protocol.
Annex I countries
The industrialized countries who have specific commitments to reduce greenhouse gas emissions under the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Kyoto Protocol. The only exceptions are Turkey and Belarus which are in Annex I but do not have reduction commitments under the Kyoto Protocol.
Baseline
The baseline describes what will happen, and how many greenhouse gas emissions will eventuate,in the absence of the CDM project, ie. the business as usual outcome. It is the alternative, or “counter-factual” scenario that is used as a comparison with the proposed CDM project to estimate the emissions reductions that will be achieved, and helps to determine additionality.
Certified Emission Reduction (CER)
The name given to a carbon credit from a CDM project. Credits from JI projects are called Emission Reduction Units (ERU). CERs are equal to one tonne of carbon dioxide equivalent (tCO2e).
Crediting period
The crediting period is the length of time during which the project will generate carbon credits. Under the Marrakech Accords projects can choose between a 7 year period which can be renewed twice to make a total of 21 years, or a one-off 10 year period. If they chose the former they must renew the baseline after every 7 year period. The crediting period is different from the project lifetime; a dam, for example, may have an estimated life of 50 years, but only be a CDM project and generate credits for 10 of those years.
Designated National Authority ( DNA) for the CDM
The DNA is the focal point for CDM matters in your country. It is frequently a unit in a government ministry that is responsible for administering CDM implementation and overseeing approval of projects. A list of some DNAs is on the official UNFCCC CDM webpage: http://cdm.unfccc.int/DNA.
Designated Operational Entity
DOEs are accredited by the Executive Board and perform two functions: validating CDM projects, and verifying and certifying emissions reductions from projects. The same DOE cannot perform both functions for one project unless it is a small-scale project. A list of accredited DOEs is available on the UNFCCC CDM webpage : http://cdm.unfccc.int/DOE.
Emissions Trading
The trading of emission allowances between Parties who have a reduction commitment under the Kyoto Protocol. It is expected that various national and regional trading schemes will be established.
Executive Board
The CDM Executive Board supervises the CDM and makes the final decision about project registration and the issuing of carbon credits. The Board also makes the final decision whether to approve new baseline and monitoring methodologies and must approve new DOEs. The Board was elected at the Marrakech Conference of Parties in 2001 and has 10 members from Parties to the Protocol. The Board must meet no less than three times a year. Members are elected for a term of two or three years.
Joint Implementation
Joint Implementation is one of the three so-called flexible mechanisms of the Kyoto Protocol, and like the CDM is project based – ie. Industrialized countries get reduction credits for investing in emission reducing projects in another country. In the case of JI projects, however, both countries have to have a reduction commitment under the Kyoto Protocol, unlike the CDM where the projects happen in countries without a reduction commitment.
Leakage
Leakage refers to emissions that take place outside of the project boundary but are attributable to the project. For example, a large energy efficiency project may result in reduced electricity prices leading to increased usage and greenhouse gas emissions1.
Marrakech Accords
The Marrakech Accords set out the rules for CDM projects, with the exception of those involving forestry projects, although they did determine that forestry projects are restricted to Afforestation and Reforestation projects and set a limit on their use The Accords are named after the meeting at which they were agreed – the 7th Conference of Parties to the Climate Convention in Marrakech, Morocco, in 2001.
Monitoring and Verification
The reduction in emissions achieved by a CDM project must be monitored by the project operator consistent with the monitoring plan outlined in the Project Design Document (PDD). This data is then verified by a designated operational entity, who then certifies that the reductions have taken place and recommends that the Executive Board issues carbon credits.
Project Boundary
Each CDM project has to identify a “project boundary”. The project boundary encompasses all of the increases and reductions of greenhouse gases that are reasonably attributable to the project so that total reductions can be calculated. For example, a biomass plant utilizing agricultural waste that displaces coal fired electricity can claim credit for the reduction in emissions that results from its operations. But it may also have to account for the greenhouse gas emissions that result from the transporting of biomass to the plant.
Project Design Document (PDD)
The document that describes the prospective CDM project and how it meets the validation requirements spelt out in the Marrakech Accords. The PDD is the main document assessed by the validator and is made available during the 30 day public comment period.
Registration
Registration is the final approval of a CDM project by the Executive Board, meaning the project can begin to generate carbon credits. Registration is expected to be a formality; the real decision about whether a project should be approved will be taken by the validator.
Stakeholders
Stakeholders are defined in the Marrakech Accords as “the public, including individuals, groups or communities affected or likely to be affected, by the proposed clean development mechanism project activity”.
Target
Under the Kyoto Protocol industrialized countries agreed to reduce their emissions. The amount they agreed to is their target. The targets are expressed as a percentage reduction of greenhouse gas emissions compared to 1990 emission levels, which has to be achieved in the period 2008-2012. So, for example, Japan has a target of 6%, which means that in the period 2008-2012 its emissions must be 6% below what they were in 1990.
Transaction costs
Transaction costs are the costs involved in developing a CDM project and then monitoring and verifying the emission reductions or sequestration that it achieves during the crediting period. It includes expenses such as preparing a PDD, which is usually done by a consultant, and baseline studies.
Validation
Before a CDM project can be presented to the CDM Executive Board for registration, an independent certifier – the validator - checks whether it meets the CDM’s validation requirements, which are in the 2001 Marrakech Accords. If the validator judges that it satisfies these requirements then it sends a recommendation to the CDM Executive Board, in the form of a validation report, that the project be registered. In reality, validation is the stage at which
Projects are approved, with registration being a formality. If a validator says that a project satisfies the CDM requirements, it is unlikely to be rejected by the Executive Board
.
UNFCCC – the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
The UNFCCC is the Convention signed at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 which included a non-binding commitment by industrialized countries to stabilize their emissions at 1990 levels by 2000. When this proved inadequate, a supplementary protocol was agreed – the Kyoto Protocol – which committed industrialized countries to an average 5% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions by 2010 compared to 1990 levels.
Adaptation Fund
Two percent of the CERs from every CDM project are deposited in a special registry run by the Executive Board. Revenues from their sale will be used to fund climate change adaptation projects in developing countries. Projects in Least Developed Countries are exempt.
Additionality
Additionality asks whether the CDM project would have happened anyway or whether it needed the CDM to go ahead. “It is generally recognised that credits for GHG emissions reduction should only be granted for projects that are additional; that is, for projects which would not have taken place in the absence of the crediting procedure or trading scheme”.
Additionality is a critical issue. Registering a non-additional CDM project will result in no additional benefit to the climate and thus represents wasted investment. Furthermore, a non-additional project will generate fake carbon credits that an Annex I country can use to avoid making real emission reductions domestically, and ultimately leads to an increase in global emissions above what was expected due to the Kyoto Protocol.
Annex I countries
The industrialized countries who have specific commitments to reduce greenhouse gas emissions under the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Kyoto Protocol. The only exceptions are Turkey and Belarus which are in Annex I but do not have reduction commitments under the Kyoto Protocol.
Baseline
The baseline describes what will happen, and how many greenhouse gas emissions will eventuate,in the absence of the CDM project, ie. the business as usual outcome. It is the alternative, or “counter-factual” scenario that is used as a comparison with the proposed CDM project to estimate the emissions reductions that will be achieved, and helps to determine additionality.
Certified Emission Reduction (CER)
The name given to a carbon credit from a CDM project. Credits from JI projects are called Emission Reduction Units (ERU). CERs are equal to one tonne of carbon dioxide equivalent (tCO2e).
Crediting period
The crediting period is the length of time during which the project will generate carbon credits. Under the Marrakech Accords projects can choose between a 7 year period which can be renewed twice to make a total of 21 years, or a one-off 10 year period. If they chose the former they must renew the baseline after every 7 year period. The crediting period is different from the project lifetime; a dam, for example, may have an estimated life of 50 years, but only be a CDM project and generate credits for 10 of those years.
Designated National Authority ( DNA) for the CDM
The DNA is the focal point for CDM matters in your country. It is frequently a unit in a government ministry that is responsible for administering CDM implementation and overseeing approval of projects. A list of some DNAs is on the official UNFCCC CDM webpage: http://cdm.unfccc.int/DNA.
Designated Operational Entity
DOEs are accredited by the Executive Board and perform two functions: validating CDM projects, and verifying and certifying emissions reductions from projects. The same DOE cannot perform both functions for one project unless it is a small-scale project. A list of accredited DOEs is available on the UNFCCC CDM webpage : http://cdm.unfccc.int/DOE.
Emissions Trading
The trading of emission allowances between Parties who have a reduction commitment under the Kyoto Protocol. It is expected that various national and regional trading schemes will be established.
Executive Board
The CDM Executive Board supervises the CDM and makes the final decision about project registration and the issuing of carbon credits. The Board also makes the final decision whether to approve new baseline and monitoring methodologies and must approve new DOEs. The Board was elected at the Marrakech Conference of Parties in 2001 and has 10 members from Parties to the Protocol. The Board must meet no less than three times a year. Members are elected for a term of two or three years.
Joint Implementation
Joint Implementation is one of the three so-called flexible mechanisms of the Kyoto Protocol, and like the CDM is project based – ie. Industrialized countries get reduction credits for investing in emission reducing projects in another country. In the case of JI projects, however, both countries have to have a reduction commitment under the Kyoto Protocol, unlike the CDM where the projects happen in countries without a reduction commitment.
Leakage
Leakage refers to emissions that take place outside of the project boundary but are attributable to the project. For example, a large energy efficiency project may result in reduced electricity prices leading to increased usage and greenhouse gas emissions1.
Marrakech Accords
The Marrakech Accords set out the rules for CDM projects, with the exception of those involving forestry projects, although they did determine that forestry projects are restricted to Afforestation and Reforestation projects and set a limit on their use The Accords are named after the meeting at which they were agreed – the 7th Conference of Parties to the Climate Convention in Marrakech, Morocco, in 2001.
Monitoring and Verification
The reduction in emissions achieved by a CDM project must be monitored by the project operator consistent with the monitoring plan outlined in the Project Design Document (PDD). This data is then verified by a designated operational entity, who then certifies that the reductions have taken place and recommends that the Executive Board issues carbon credits.
Project Boundary
Each CDM project has to identify a “project boundary”. The project boundary encompasses all of the increases and reductions of greenhouse gases that are reasonably attributable to the project so that total reductions can be calculated. For example, a biomass plant utilizing agricultural waste that displaces coal fired electricity can claim credit for the reduction in emissions that results from its operations. But it may also have to account for the greenhouse gas emissions that result from the transporting of biomass to the plant.
Project Design Document (PDD)
The document that describes the prospective CDM project and how it meets the validation requirements spelt out in the Marrakech Accords. The PDD is the main document assessed by the validator and is made available during the 30 day public comment period.
Registration
Registration is the final approval of a CDM project by the Executive Board, meaning the project can begin to generate carbon credits. Registration is expected to be a formality; the real decision about whether a project should be approved will be taken by the validator.
Stakeholders
Stakeholders are defined in the Marrakech Accords as “the public, including individuals, groups or communities affected or likely to be affected, by the proposed clean development mechanism project activity”.
Target
Under the Kyoto Protocol industrialized countries agreed to reduce their emissions. The amount they agreed to is their target. The targets are expressed as a percentage reduction of greenhouse gas emissions compared to 1990 emission levels, which has to be achieved in the period 2008-2012. So, for example, Japan has a target of 6%, which means that in the period 2008-2012 its emissions must be 6% below what they were in 1990.
Transaction costs
Transaction costs are the costs involved in developing a CDM project and then monitoring and verifying the emission reductions or sequestration that it achieves during the crediting period. It includes expenses such as preparing a PDD, which is usually done by a consultant, and baseline studies.
Validation
Before a CDM project can be presented to the CDM Executive Board for registration, an independent certifier – the validator - checks whether it meets the CDM’s validation requirements, which are in the 2001 Marrakech Accords. If the validator judges that it satisfies these requirements then it sends a recommendation to the CDM Executive Board, in the form of a validation report, that the project be registered. In reality, validation is the stage at which
Projects are approved, with registration being a formality. If a validator says that a project satisfies the CDM requirements, it is unlikely to be rejected by the Executive Board
.
UNFCCC – the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
The UNFCCC is the Convention signed at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 which included a non-binding commitment by industrialized countries to stabilize their emissions at 1990 levels by 2000. When this proved inadequate, a supplementary protocol was agreed – the Kyoto Protocol – which committed industrialized countries to an average 5% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions by 2010 compared to 1990 levels.
Star rated Air conditioners!!! Is it really worth buying star rated air conditioners (ac s)
Most websites on air conditioning ratings are now recommending you to buy an ENERGY STAR rated AC. Will these energy saving air conditioners will undoubtedly save you money? Yes it will when compared to the cheapest, least efficient on the market (since the ENERGY STAR ones will be at least 10% more efficient). The star rated will definitely be more efficient than anything more than 8 or 10 years old, because as they become less efficient with time and more over they have out dated electro mechanical parts.
I have done a small calculation based on the wattage consumption and found out the following savings could be achieved by using a 5 star rated Ac over a 0 star rated AC.
Let us consider a small house:
No of operating hours for AC per day: 6 hours
No of days in a year : 300 years ( leaving out 65 days for outing and other things)
AC tonne : 1.5 tonne
Electricity charges : Chennai, India rates are applied
The total energy bill for a '5' star rated Air conditioner for the above configuration and operating pattern is : Rs. 6793 per year
The total energy bill for a '0' star rated Air conditioner for the above configuration and operating pattern would be : Rs. 9887 per year
So you save Rs. 3094 directly on energy bills in addition to that you have reduced your CO2 emissions by saving energy.
I have done a small calculation based on the wattage consumption and found out the following savings could be achieved by using a 5 star rated Ac over a 0 star rated AC.
Let us consider a small house:
No of operating hours for AC per day: 6 hours
No of days in a year : 300 years ( leaving out 65 days for outing and other things)
AC tonne : 1.5 tonne
Electricity charges : Chennai, India rates are applied
The total energy bill for a '5' star rated Air conditioner for the above configuration and operating pattern is : Rs. 6793 per year
The total energy bill for a '0' star rated Air conditioner for the above configuration and operating pattern would be : Rs. 9887 per year
So you save Rs. 3094 directly on energy bills in addition to that you have reduced your CO2 emissions by saving energy.
Carbon, Nitrogen Link May Provide New Ways to Mitigate Pollution Problems
Carbon, Nitrogen Link May Provide New Ways to Mitigate Pollution Problems
(Apr. 21, 2010) — A new study exploring the growing worldwide problem of nitrogen pollution from soils to the sea shows that global ratios of nitrogen and carbon in the environment are inexorably linked, a finding that may lead to new strategies to help mitigate regional problems ranging from contaminated waterways to human health.
A new CU-Boulder study shows that ratios of nitrogen and carbon in soils, rivers and oceans are closely linked, a finding with potential implications for mitigating pollution and health problems. (Credit: Casey A. Cass, University of Colorado)
The University of Colorado at Boulder study found the ratio between nitrates -- a naturally occurring form of nitrogen found in soils, streams, lakes and oceans -- and organic carbon is closely governed by ongoing microbial processes that occur in virtually all ecosystems. The team combed exhaustive databases containing millions of sample points from tropical, temperate, boreal and polar sites, including well-known, nitrogen-polluted areas like Chesapeake Bay, the Baltic Sea and the Gulf of Mexico.
"We have developed a new framework to explain how and why carbon and nitrogen appear to be so tightly linked," said CU-Boulder doctoral student Philip Taylor, lead author on the new study. "The findings are helping us to explain why nitrate can become so high in some water bodies but remain low in others."
A paper by Taylor and CU-Boulder ecology and evolutionary biology Professor Alan Townsend is being published in the April 22 issue of Nature. The study was funded in part by the National Science Foundation. Both Taylor and Townsend also are affiliated with CU-Boulder's Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research.
While the vast majority of nitrogen gas is abundant in the atmosphere, it is nonreactive and unavailable to most life, said Townsend. But in 1909 a process was developed to transform the nonreactive gas into ammonia, the active ingredient of synthetic fertilizer. Humans now manufacture more than 400 billion pounds of fertilizer each year -- much of which migrates from croplands into the atmosphere, waterways and oceans -- creating a suite of environmental problems ranging from coastal "dead zones" and toxic algal blooms to ozone pollution and human health issues.
Taylor said the new study indicates that in virtually every area of Earth's environment where there is substantially more dissolved organic carbon than nitrates, the nitrogen is sucked up by microbial communities. "But most of these nitrates are probably not locked away forever," said Taylor. "Instead, they are passed on to other ecosystems, essentially just moving pollution problems elsewhere in the environment."
The consistent relationship between nitrogen and carbon detected in the study was surprising, said Taylor, a doctoral student in CU-Boulder's ecology and evolutionary biology department. "The microbial communities that are controlling this link are found across the globe, whether in pristine environments or in areas of heavy pollution."
Taylor said the CU-Boulder team looked at available data from virtually every ecosystem type, ranging from high-altitude tundra and tropical forests to riparian areas and estuaries. "We looked at a large number of data sets, from sites as small as an office table to as large as entire oceans," said Taylor. "We saw the same correlation between nitrogen and carbon wherever we looked."
"The bottom line is that if there is sufficient organic carbon present, it keeps the nitrates at a low level," said Townsend. "By using available data, we can now make more accurate evaluations of when and where nitrate pollution may pop up." In the February 2010 issue of Scientific American, Townsend and co-author Robert Howarth of Cornell University wrote that "a single new atom of reactive nitrogen can bounce its way around these widespread environments, like a felon on a crime spree."
Nitrogen pollution is increasing globally in part because of fertilizer-intensive activities like biofuel synthesis and meat production that relies on the growth and cultivation of grains used to feed animals. In addition, the burning of fossil fuels -- which releases nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide -- causes ground-level ozone pollution. Some scientists have ranked nitrogen pollution as one of the top threats to global biodiversity, Townsend said.
High nitrate concentrations in drinking water also is a potential hazard to human health and may cause several types of cancer and elevate risks for Alzheimer's disease and diabetes, while atmospheric nitrogen pollution can elevate cardiopulmonary ailments, said Townsend. In addition, studies also have shown elevated nitrogen concentrations may increase the risks of several other human and wildlife diseases.
Taylor said the new study showed that "downscaling" from a global analysis of the carbon-nitrogen link to system-specific scenarios indicates the relationship between the elements typically becomes even stronger. "Analyzing the problem using these methods at smaller scales could allow ecosystem management teams to better predict and influence the fate of nitrates in the environment," Taylor said.
Story Source:
Adapted from materials provided by University of Colorado at Boulder.
Journal Reference:
1. Philip G. Taylor, Alan R. Townsend. Stoichiometric control of organic carbon%u2013nitrate relationships from soils to the sea. Nature, 2010; 464 (7292): 1178 DOI: 10.1038/nature08985
(Apr. 21, 2010) — A new study exploring the growing worldwide problem of nitrogen pollution from soils to the sea shows that global ratios of nitrogen and carbon in the environment are inexorably linked, a finding that may lead to new strategies to help mitigate regional problems ranging from contaminated waterways to human health.
A new CU-Boulder study shows that ratios of nitrogen and carbon in soils, rivers and oceans are closely linked, a finding with potential implications for mitigating pollution and health problems. (Credit: Casey A. Cass, University of Colorado)
The University of Colorado at Boulder study found the ratio between nitrates -- a naturally occurring form of nitrogen found in soils, streams, lakes and oceans -- and organic carbon is closely governed by ongoing microbial processes that occur in virtually all ecosystems. The team combed exhaustive databases containing millions of sample points from tropical, temperate, boreal and polar sites, including well-known, nitrogen-polluted areas like Chesapeake Bay, the Baltic Sea and the Gulf of Mexico.
"We have developed a new framework to explain how and why carbon and nitrogen appear to be so tightly linked," said CU-Boulder doctoral student Philip Taylor, lead author on the new study. "The findings are helping us to explain why nitrate can become so high in some water bodies but remain low in others."
A paper by Taylor and CU-Boulder ecology and evolutionary biology Professor Alan Townsend is being published in the April 22 issue of Nature. The study was funded in part by the National Science Foundation. Both Taylor and Townsend also are affiliated with CU-Boulder's Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research.
While the vast majority of nitrogen gas is abundant in the atmosphere, it is nonreactive and unavailable to most life, said Townsend. But in 1909 a process was developed to transform the nonreactive gas into ammonia, the active ingredient of synthetic fertilizer. Humans now manufacture more than 400 billion pounds of fertilizer each year -- much of which migrates from croplands into the atmosphere, waterways and oceans -- creating a suite of environmental problems ranging from coastal "dead zones" and toxic algal blooms to ozone pollution and human health issues.
Taylor said the new study indicates that in virtually every area of Earth's environment where there is substantially more dissolved organic carbon than nitrates, the nitrogen is sucked up by microbial communities. "But most of these nitrates are probably not locked away forever," said Taylor. "Instead, they are passed on to other ecosystems, essentially just moving pollution problems elsewhere in the environment."
The consistent relationship between nitrogen and carbon detected in the study was surprising, said Taylor, a doctoral student in CU-Boulder's ecology and evolutionary biology department. "The microbial communities that are controlling this link are found across the globe, whether in pristine environments or in areas of heavy pollution."
Taylor said the CU-Boulder team looked at available data from virtually every ecosystem type, ranging from high-altitude tundra and tropical forests to riparian areas and estuaries. "We looked at a large number of data sets, from sites as small as an office table to as large as entire oceans," said Taylor. "We saw the same correlation between nitrogen and carbon wherever we looked."
"The bottom line is that if there is sufficient organic carbon present, it keeps the nitrates at a low level," said Townsend. "By using available data, we can now make more accurate evaluations of when and where nitrate pollution may pop up." In the February 2010 issue of Scientific American, Townsend and co-author Robert Howarth of Cornell University wrote that "a single new atom of reactive nitrogen can bounce its way around these widespread environments, like a felon on a crime spree."
Nitrogen pollution is increasing globally in part because of fertilizer-intensive activities like biofuel synthesis and meat production that relies on the growth and cultivation of grains used to feed animals. In addition, the burning of fossil fuels -- which releases nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide -- causes ground-level ozone pollution. Some scientists have ranked nitrogen pollution as one of the top threats to global biodiversity, Townsend said.
High nitrate concentrations in drinking water also is a potential hazard to human health and may cause several types of cancer and elevate risks for Alzheimer's disease and diabetes, while atmospheric nitrogen pollution can elevate cardiopulmonary ailments, said Townsend. In addition, studies also have shown elevated nitrogen concentrations may increase the risks of several other human and wildlife diseases.
Taylor said the new study showed that "downscaling" from a global analysis of the carbon-nitrogen link to system-specific scenarios indicates the relationship between the elements typically becomes even stronger. "Analyzing the problem using these methods at smaller scales could allow ecosystem management teams to better predict and influence the fate of nitrates in the environment," Taylor said.
Story Source:
Adapted from materials provided by University of Colorado at Boulder.
Journal Reference:
1. Philip G. Taylor, Alan R. Townsend. Stoichiometric control of organic carbon%u2013nitrate relationships from soils to the sea. Nature, 2010; 464 (7292): 1178 DOI: 10.1038/nature08985
'Paltry' Copenhagen carbon pledges point to 3C world
'Paltry' Copenhagen carbon pledges point to 3C world
Poorer nations are unlikely to make a low-carbon switch without a Western lead
Pledges made at December's UN summit in Copenhagen are unlikely to keep global warming below 2C, a study concludes.
Writing in the journal Nature, analysts at the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impacts Research in Germany say a rise of at least 3C by 2100 is likely.
The team also says many countries, including EU members and China, have pledged slower carbon curbs than they have been achieving anyway.
They say a new global deal is needed if deeper cuts are to materialise.
"There's a big mismatch between the ambitious goal, which is 2C... and the emissions reductions," said Potsdam's Malte Meinshausen.
"The pledged emissions reductions are in most cases very unambitious," he told BBC News.
In their Nature article, the team uses stronger language, describing the pledges as "paltry".
"The prospects for limiting global warming to 2C - or even to 1.5C, as more than 100 nations demand - are in dire peril," they conclude.
Between now and 2020, global emissions are likely to rise by 10-20%, they calculate, and the chances of passing 3C by 2100 are greater than 50%.
According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), this implies a range of serious impacts for the world, including
* significant falls in crop yields across most of the world
* damage to most coral reefs
* likely disruption to water supplies for hundreds of millions of people.
Chances of a 3C rise are higher than evens, the team calculates (simplified from Potsdam Institute's Nature paper)
More than 120 countries have now associated themselves with the Copenhagen Accord, the political document stitched together on the summit's final day by a small group of countries led by the US and the BASIC bloc of Brazil, China, India and South Africa.
The accord "recognises" the 2C target as indicated by science. It was also backed at last year's G8 summit.
Many of those 120-odd have said what they are prepared to do to constrain their greenhouse gas emissions - either pledging cuts by 2020, in the case of industrialised countries, or promising to improve their "carbon intensity" in the case of developing nations.
Some of the pledges are little more than vague statements of intent. But all developed countries, and the developing world's major emitters, have all given firm figures or ranges of figures.
The EU, for example, pledges to cut emissions by 20% from 1990 levels by 2020; China promises to improve carbon intensity by 40-45% by 2020 compared against 2005; and Australia vows an emission cut of 5-25% on 2000 levels by 2020.
The Potsdam team concludes that many of the detailed pledges are nowhere near as ambitious as their proponents would claim.
They calculate that the EU's 20% pledge implies an annual cut of 0.45% between 2010 and 2020, whereas it is already achieving annual reductions larger than that.
The Potsdam team calculates that the EU's emissions have fallen on average by 0.6% per year since 1980
During 2009, emissions from the bloc's power sector alone fell by 11% owing to the recession
Consequently, the current 20% by 2020 pledge equates to 0.45% per year - less than the historical average
China's 40% minimum pledge also amounts to nothing more than business as usual, they relate; and among developed countries, only pledges by Norway and Japan fall into the 25-40% by 2020 range that the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) recommends as necessary to give a good chance of meeting the 2C target.
Hot air
Whereas many countries, rich and poor, have indicated they are willing to be more ambitious if there is a binding global deal, the Potsdam team notes that in the absence of a global deal, only the least ambitious end of their range can be counted upon.
Writing in the BBC's Green Room this week, Bryony Worthington from the campaign group Sandbag argues that the EU can easily move to its alternative higher figure of 30% - and that it must, if it wants to stimulate others to cut deeper.
"Many countries are looking to Europe to show how it is possible to achieve growth without increasing emissions," she said.
"Only when they see that this is possible will they be inclined to adopt absolute reduction targets of their own."
An additional factor flagged up in the analysis is that many countries have accrued surplus emissions credits under the Kyoto Protocol.
Countries such as Russia and other former Eastern bloc nations comfortably exceeded their Kyoto targets owing to the collapse of Communist economies in the early 1990s.
Without a binding global agreement preventing the practice, these nations would be allowed to put these "banked" credits towards meeting any future targets - meaning they would have to reduce actual emissions less than they promised.
These "hot air" credits could also be traded between nations.
Stern words
This is not the first analysis of the Copenhagen Accord pledges, but it is one of the starkest.
Lord Stern's team at the Grantham Research Institute for Climate Change and the Environment in London has also run the figures; and although their conclusions on the numbers are similar, they do not see things in quite such a pessimistic light.
Cocahambaba delegate
The Bolivian-hosted "Mother Earth" summit is lobbying for faster cuts
"You cannot characterise an emissions path for a country or the world by focusing solely on the level in 2020 or any other particular date," said the institute's principal research fellow Alex Bowen.
"It is the whole path that matters, and if more action is taken now to reduce emissions, less action will be required later, and vice versa."
The Potsdam team acknowledges that if emissions do rise as they project, it would still be possible to have a reasonable chance of meeting 2C if very strict carbon curbs were applied thereafter, bringing emissions down by 5% per year or so.
"In an ideal world, if you pull off every possible emission reduction from the year 2021 onwards, you can still get to get to 2C if you're lucky," said Dr Meinshausen.
"But it is like racing towards the cliff and hoping you stop just before it."
They argue that positive analyses may "lull decision-makers into a false sense of security".
The UN climate process continues through this year, with many countries saying they still want to reach a binding global agreement by December.
But stark divisions remain between various blocs over emission cuts, finance, technology transfer and other issues; and it is far from certain that all important countries want anything more binding than the current set of voluntary national commitments.
Poorer nations are unlikely to make a low-carbon switch without a Western lead
Pledges made at December's UN summit in Copenhagen are unlikely to keep global warming below 2C, a study concludes.
Writing in the journal Nature, analysts at the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impacts Research in Germany say a rise of at least 3C by 2100 is likely.
The team also says many countries, including EU members and China, have pledged slower carbon curbs than they have been achieving anyway.
They say a new global deal is needed if deeper cuts are to materialise.
"There's a big mismatch between the ambitious goal, which is 2C... and the emissions reductions," said Potsdam's Malte Meinshausen.
"The pledged emissions reductions are in most cases very unambitious," he told BBC News.
In their Nature article, the team uses stronger language, describing the pledges as "paltry".
"The prospects for limiting global warming to 2C - or even to 1.5C, as more than 100 nations demand - are in dire peril," they conclude.
Between now and 2020, global emissions are likely to rise by 10-20%, they calculate, and the chances of passing 3C by 2100 are greater than 50%.
According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), this implies a range of serious impacts for the world, including
* significant falls in crop yields across most of the world
* damage to most coral reefs
* likely disruption to water supplies for hundreds of millions of people.
Chances of a 3C rise are higher than evens, the team calculates (simplified from Potsdam Institute's Nature paper)
More than 120 countries have now associated themselves with the Copenhagen Accord, the political document stitched together on the summit's final day by a small group of countries led by the US and the BASIC bloc of Brazil, China, India and South Africa.
The accord "recognises" the 2C target as indicated by science. It was also backed at last year's G8 summit.
Many of those 120-odd have said what they are prepared to do to constrain their greenhouse gas emissions - either pledging cuts by 2020, in the case of industrialised countries, or promising to improve their "carbon intensity" in the case of developing nations.
Some of the pledges are little more than vague statements of intent. But all developed countries, and the developing world's major emitters, have all given firm figures or ranges of figures.
The EU, for example, pledges to cut emissions by 20% from 1990 levels by 2020; China promises to improve carbon intensity by 40-45% by 2020 compared against 2005; and Australia vows an emission cut of 5-25% on 2000 levels by 2020.
The Potsdam team concludes that many of the detailed pledges are nowhere near as ambitious as their proponents would claim.
They calculate that the EU's 20% pledge implies an annual cut of 0.45% between 2010 and 2020, whereas it is already achieving annual reductions larger than that.
The Potsdam team calculates that the EU's emissions have fallen on average by 0.6% per year since 1980
During 2009, emissions from the bloc's power sector alone fell by 11% owing to the recession
Consequently, the current 20% by 2020 pledge equates to 0.45% per year - less than the historical average
China's 40% minimum pledge also amounts to nothing more than business as usual, they relate; and among developed countries, only pledges by Norway and Japan fall into the 25-40% by 2020 range that the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) recommends as necessary to give a good chance of meeting the 2C target.
Hot air
Whereas many countries, rich and poor, have indicated they are willing to be more ambitious if there is a binding global deal, the Potsdam team notes that in the absence of a global deal, only the least ambitious end of their range can be counted upon.
Writing in the BBC's Green Room this week, Bryony Worthington from the campaign group Sandbag argues that the EU can easily move to its alternative higher figure of 30% - and that it must, if it wants to stimulate others to cut deeper.
"Many countries are looking to Europe to show how it is possible to achieve growth without increasing emissions," she said.
"Only when they see that this is possible will they be inclined to adopt absolute reduction targets of their own."
An additional factor flagged up in the analysis is that many countries have accrued surplus emissions credits under the Kyoto Protocol.
Countries such as Russia and other former Eastern bloc nations comfortably exceeded their Kyoto targets owing to the collapse of Communist economies in the early 1990s.
Without a binding global agreement preventing the practice, these nations would be allowed to put these "banked" credits towards meeting any future targets - meaning they would have to reduce actual emissions less than they promised.
These "hot air" credits could also be traded between nations.
Stern words
This is not the first analysis of the Copenhagen Accord pledges, but it is one of the starkest.
Lord Stern's team at the Grantham Research Institute for Climate Change and the Environment in London has also run the figures; and although their conclusions on the numbers are similar, they do not see things in quite such a pessimistic light.
Cocahambaba delegate
The Bolivian-hosted "Mother Earth" summit is lobbying for faster cuts
"You cannot characterise an emissions path for a country or the world by focusing solely on the level in 2020 or any other particular date," said the institute's principal research fellow Alex Bowen.
"It is the whole path that matters, and if more action is taken now to reduce emissions, less action will be required later, and vice versa."
The Potsdam team acknowledges that if emissions do rise as they project, it would still be possible to have a reasonable chance of meeting 2C if very strict carbon curbs were applied thereafter, bringing emissions down by 5% per year or so.
"In an ideal world, if you pull off every possible emission reduction from the year 2021 onwards, you can still get to get to 2C if you're lucky," said Dr Meinshausen.
"But it is like racing towards the cliff and hoping you stop just before it."
They argue that positive analyses may "lull decision-makers into a false sense of security".
The UN climate process continues through this year, with many countries saying they still want to reach a binding global agreement by December.
But stark divisions remain between various blocs over emission cuts, finance, technology transfer and other issues; and it is far from certain that all important countries want anything more binding than the current set of voluntary national commitments.
Long-Distance Journeys out of Fashion? Global Warming May Be Causing Evolutionary Changes in Bird Migration
The results of genetic studies on migratory birds substantiate the theory that in the case of a continued global warming, and within only a few generations, migratory birds will -- subject to strong selection and microevolution -- at first begin to fly shorter distances and at a later stage, stop migrating, and will thus become so-called "residents."
The locomotory activity (restlessness) of migratory birds can be recorded quantitatively in environment-controlled chambers. Such cages are equipped with movable perches, which are coupled to micro-switches. (Credit: Max Planck Institute for Ornithology)
In a selection experiment with blackcaps from southwest Germany, Francisco Pulido and Peter Berthold at the Max Planck Institute for Ornithology in Radolfzell were able to show that first non-migratory birds are to be found in a completely migratory bird population after only two generations of directional selection for lower migratory activity. The strong evolutionary reduction in migration distance found in this study is in line with the expected adaptive changes in bird migration in response to environmental alterations caused by climatic change.
The research is published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (April 5, 2010).
For generations, humans have been watching flocks of migrating birds flying to their winter quarters in the autumn, and awaiting their loud songs announcing their happy return in the spring. The timing of their migration is adjusted to the availability of resources, such as food and habitats, in the stopover areas as well as in the non-breeding and breeding areas. For migratory birds it is essential to be in the right place at the right time.
For some years, it has been possible to demonstrate using data collected in the wild that some species of migratory birds respond to the increase in temperature and to the subsequent changes in the environment. The blackcap is one of the species where changes in migratory behaviour have been most consistent. Today, blackcaps return to their breeding sites earlier, lay their eggs earlier, and leave us later in the autumn. One population even established a new wintering area in the British Isles, instead of flying all the way to Spain. Because of its large genetic variation, the researchers expected rapid adaptation to altered environmental conditions in this species, which is a model for investigating the evolution of bird migration.
The scientists at the Max Planck Institute for Ornithology wanted to find out what the mechanisms were for adjusting to global warming, whether there were measurable changes in migratory behaviour within a period with a strong temperature increase, and whether these changes, above all the reduced migratory distance, were an individual adjustment to altered environmental conditions, or whether the genetic composition of the populations would change.
During the period 1988 -- 2001, which were years with particularly high temperatures, blackcap nestlings were taken from their nests each year (757 birds in total) and reared by hand in the lab. The seasonal changes in light-dark transition were simulated and the migratory restlessness of the inexperienced young birds was measured in autumn. The duration of their restless behaviour during the night, i.e. the fluttering and hopping along the perch corresponded approximately to the duration of the flight to their winter quarters.
The birds that were taken from their natural habitat during these 14 years showed a significant reduction in their migratory activity. In their natural habitat this would be equivalent to a shortening of flying distance. This reduction, as the researchers were able to prove, was based on a change in the genetic composition of the population, i.e. evolution.
In a second experiment, the scientists simulated the selection process they had observed in nature in the laboratory, but in "time lapse." The birds with the least migratory activity and their offspring were paired over four generations. In order to avoid inbreeding, the researchers paired 50% of this line with birds in their natural habitat that showed a particularly weak migratory restlessness. After two generations, the first "resident" birds were already to be found in this population. Hence, directional selection for lower migratory activity leads to the evolution of partial migratory populations and, finally, to populations that do not leave their breeding areas at all.
The advantages for the birds are obvious: The shortening of migration distance saves energy and time. Moreover, because shorter days, as experienced in more northern wintering areas, induce an advancement of migratory activity and reproduction, birds migrating shorter distances will occupy the best breeding territories and may produce multiple broods in a year. "We assume that the reduction in migration distance is the first and most significant evolutionary mechanism that migratory birds have for adapting to changed climatic conditions," explains Francisco Pulido. "For birds that migrate short to average distances of approximately 1,000 km, and in which migratory behaviour is genetically determined, as is the case with most songbirds, this can be a successful strategy for survival. However, for long-distance migrants, for which successful migration will depend on overcoming ecological barriers such as desert or sea, this mechanism of adaptation cannot work, as a reduction of migration distance would mean spending the winter in a hostile environment, in which they cannot not survive."
Story Source:
Adapted from materials provided by Max-Planck-Gesellschaft.
Journal Reference:
1. Francisco Pulido and Peter Berthold. Current selection for lower migratory activity will drive the evolution of residency in a migratory bird population. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 2010; DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0910361107
The locomotory activity (restlessness) of migratory birds can be recorded quantitatively in environment-controlled chambers. Such cages are equipped with movable perches, which are coupled to micro-switches. (Credit: Max Planck Institute for Ornithology)
In a selection experiment with blackcaps from southwest Germany, Francisco Pulido and Peter Berthold at the Max Planck Institute for Ornithology in Radolfzell were able to show that first non-migratory birds are to be found in a completely migratory bird population after only two generations of directional selection for lower migratory activity. The strong evolutionary reduction in migration distance found in this study is in line with the expected adaptive changes in bird migration in response to environmental alterations caused by climatic change.
The research is published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (April 5, 2010).
For generations, humans have been watching flocks of migrating birds flying to their winter quarters in the autumn, and awaiting their loud songs announcing their happy return in the spring. The timing of their migration is adjusted to the availability of resources, such as food and habitats, in the stopover areas as well as in the non-breeding and breeding areas. For migratory birds it is essential to be in the right place at the right time.
For some years, it has been possible to demonstrate using data collected in the wild that some species of migratory birds respond to the increase in temperature and to the subsequent changes in the environment. The blackcap is one of the species where changes in migratory behaviour have been most consistent. Today, blackcaps return to their breeding sites earlier, lay their eggs earlier, and leave us later in the autumn. One population even established a new wintering area in the British Isles, instead of flying all the way to Spain. Because of its large genetic variation, the researchers expected rapid adaptation to altered environmental conditions in this species, which is a model for investigating the evolution of bird migration.
The scientists at the Max Planck Institute for Ornithology wanted to find out what the mechanisms were for adjusting to global warming, whether there were measurable changes in migratory behaviour within a period with a strong temperature increase, and whether these changes, above all the reduced migratory distance, were an individual adjustment to altered environmental conditions, or whether the genetic composition of the populations would change.
During the period 1988 -- 2001, which were years with particularly high temperatures, blackcap nestlings were taken from their nests each year (757 birds in total) and reared by hand in the lab. The seasonal changes in light-dark transition were simulated and the migratory restlessness of the inexperienced young birds was measured in autumn. The duration of their restless behaviour during the night, i.e. the fluttering and hopping along the perch corresponded approximately to the duration of the flight to their winter quarters.
The birds that were taken from their natural habitat during these 14 years showed a significant reduction in their migratory activity. In their natural habitat this would be equivalent to a shortening of flying distance. This reduction, as the researchers were able to prove, was based on a change in the genetic composition of the population, i.e. evolution.
In a second experiment, the scientists simulated the selection process they had observed in nature in the laboratory, but in "time lapse." The birds with the least migratory activity and their offspring were paired over four generations. In order to avoid inbreeding, the researchers paired 50% of this line with birds in their natural habitat that showed a particularly weak migratory restlessness. After two generations, the first "resident" birds were already to be found in this population. Hence, directional selection for lower migratory activity leads to the evolution of partial migratory populations and, finally, to populations that do not leave their breeding areas at all.
The advantages for the birds are obvious: The shortening of migration distance saves energy and time. Moreover, because shorter days, as experienced in more northern wintering areas, induce an advancement of migratory activity and reproduction, birds migrating shorter distances will occupy the best breeding territories and may produce multiple broods in a year. "We assume that the reduction in migration distance is the first and most significant evolutionary mechanism that migratory birds have for adapting to changed climatic conditions," explains Francisco Pulido. "For birds that migrate short to average distances of approximately 1,000 km, and in which migratory behaviour is genetically determined, as is the case with most songbirds, this can be a successful strategy for survival. However, for long-distance migrants, for which successful migration will depend on overcoming ecological barriers such as desert or sea, this mechanism of adaptation cannot work, as a reduction of migration distance would mean spending the winter in a hostile environment, in which they cannot not survive."
Story Source:
Adapted from materials provided by Max-Planck-Gesellschaft.
Journal Reference:
1. Francisco Pulido and Peter Berthold. Current selection for lower migratory activity will drive the evolution of residency in a migratory bird population. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 2010; DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0910361107
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